Synthesis and secretion of volatile short‐chain fatty acids in Triatoma infestans infected with Beauveria bassiana

Physically disturbed Triatoma infestans (Hemiptera: Reduviidae) adults, as well as adults of other Chagas' disease vectors, secrete a mix of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) with alarm and possible sexual and defence functions. The aim of the present research was to test whether infection with the entomopathogenic fungus Beauveria bassiana (Ascomycota: Hypocreales: Clavicipitaceae) has an effect on VOC secretion in disturbed T. infestans and on the expression of two genes (Ti‐brnq and Ti‐bckdc) potentially involved in VOC biosynthesis. The volatiles released by insects at different time periods after fungal treatment were identified and their relative amounts measured. Isobutyric acid was the most abundant volatile found in both healthy and fungus‐infected insects and underwent no significant relative changes through the infection process. The secretion of propionic acid, however, was significantly higher at 1–4 days post‐infection (d.p. i.) compared with that in controls. A slight induction of both Ti‐brnq and Ti‐bckdc genes was found by real‐time polymerase chain reaction at 4 d.p. i., with expression values reaching up to three‐fold those in controls. The early stages of fungal infection seem to affect the composition of the alarm pheromone by changing the expression pattern of both genes analysed. These results help to elucidate the impact of fungal infections on the chemical ecology of triatomine bugs.     

Volatile organic compounds released by maize following herbivory or insect extract application and communication between plants

To protect themselves from herbivory, plants have evolved an arsenal of physical and chemical defences and release a variety of volatile organic compounds (VOCs). By releasing these VOCs, a signalling plant can both reduce herbivory, sometimes by more than 90%, and also warn neighbouring plants about an attack. The aim of this study was to assess the influence of herbivory and insect extract application on VOC release by damaged/treated and nearby undamaged/untreated maize plants. We confirmed that European corn borer (Ostrinia nubilalis) larvae attack or larvae extract application induced maize VOC release. Greater amounts of (Z)‐3‐hexenal, (E)‐2‐hexenal, (Z)‐3‐hexen‐1‐ol, (E)‐2‐hexen‐1‐ol, β‐myrcene, (Z)‐3‐hexen‐1‐yl acetate, 1‐hexyl acetate, (Z)‐ocimene, linalool, benzyl acetate, methyl salicylate, indole, methyl anthranilate, geranyl acetate, β‐caryophyllene, (E)‐β‐farnesene and (Z)‐3‐hexenal, (Z)‐3‐hexen‐1‐ol, (Z)‐3‐hexen‐1‐yl acetate, (Z)‐ocimene, linalool, indole, methyl anthranilate, geranyl acetate, β‐caryophyllene and (E)‐β‐farnesene were released as a result of biotic stress after insect attack or insect extract application. The amounts of each VOC released were qualitatively and quantitatively distinct and dependent on time after biotic stress exposure. However, for all biotic stresses, significantly lower VOC induction was measured when leaves were damaged/treated for three days, as compared to seven days. Our work also demonstrated that undamaged/untreated neighbouring plants also release significant amounts of VOCs. This suggests that VOC emission by a damaged/treated plant stimulates VOC induction in nearby undamaged/untreated plants. However, the concentrations of all VOCs released by neighbouring undamaged/untreated maize plants were lower than those from damaged/treated plants and were negatively correlated with distance from a damaged/treated plant. Still, significant VOC induction occurred in undamaged/untreated plants even at 3 m distance from a damaged/infected plant. Our work suggests that maize plant protective defence responses (VOC emission) can be induced via application of European corn borer extracts.     

Volatile induction of three cereals: influence of mechanical injury and insect herbivory on injured plants and neighbouring uninjured plants

Herbivore damage and mechanical injury to leaves can stimulate the emission of volatile compounds. It is well known that emission of these volatile organic compounds (VOC) from plants can influence interactions with pests and their natural enemies. In our experiment, we studied the VOC responses of Triticum aestivum cv. ‘Bombona’, Avena sativa cv. ‘Deresz’ and Hordeum vulgare cv. ‘Rastik’ under mechanical injury and/or adult cereal leaf beetle herbivory, Oelema melanopus (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae). In the first part of our experiment, we confirmed that increased amounts of several green leaf volatiles (GLVs) and terpene VOC were released by tested cereal plants after leaf injury. The quantities of multiple induced VOC varied significantly between our tested cereals. When undamaged wheat, barley and oat plants were positioned near to mechanically injured or insect-damaged wheat plants, these neighbouring uninjured plants of all three test cereals also emitted significantly more VOC than control plants. The degree of VOC induction was significantly greater when an uninjured plant was closer to an injured wheat plant. This phenomenon may be useful for crop protection, as VOC manipulation may result in improved pest management and help reduce the use of harmful pesticides.     

Trends and applications in plant volatile sampling and analysis

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) released by plants serve as information and defense chemicals in mutualistic and antagonistic interactions and mitigate effects of abiotic stress. Passive and dynamic sampling techniques combined with gas chromatography–mass spectrometry analysis have become routine tools to measure emissions of VOCs and determine their various functions. More recently, knowledge of the roles of plant VOCs in the aboveground environment has led to the exploration of similar functions in the soil and rhizosphere. Moreover, VOC patterns have been recognized as sensitive and time-dependent markers of biotic and abiotic stress. This focused review addresses these developments by presenting recent progress in VOC sampling and analysis. We show advances in the use of small, inexpensive sampling devices and describe methods to monitor plant VOC emissions in the belowground environment. We further address latest trends in real-time measurements of volatilomes in plant phenotyping and most recent developments of small portable devices and VOC sensors for non-invasive VOC fingerprinting of plant disease. These technologies allow for innovative approaches to study plant VOC biology and application in agriculture.     

Volatile organic compounds produced by human skin cells

Skin produces volatile organic compounds (VOCs) released to the environment with emission patterns characteristic of climatic conditions. It could be thought that these compounds are intermediaries in cell metabolism, since many intermediaries of metabolic pathways have a volatile potential. In this work, using gas chromatography, we answered the question of whether VOC profiles of primary cultures of human dermal fibroblasts were affected by the type of culture conditions. VOCs were determined for different types of culture, finding significant differences between skin cells grown in classical monolayer culture -2D- compared with 3D matrix immobilized cultures. This indicates that VOC profiles could provide information on the physiological state of skin cells or skin.     

Allelopathic effects of volatile organic compounds released from Pinus halepensis needles and roots

The Mediterranean region is recognized as a global biodiversity hotspot. However, over the last decades, the cessation of traditional farming in the north part of the Mediterranean basin has given way to strong afforestation leading to occurrence of abandoned agricultural lands colonized by pioneer expansionist species like Pinus halepensis. This pine species is known to synthesize a wide range of secondary metabolites, and previous studies have demonstrated strong allelopathic potentialities of its needle and root leachates. Pinus halepensis is also recognized to release significant amounts of volatile organic compounds (VOC) with potential allelopathic effects that have never been investigated. In this context, the objectives of the present study were to improve our knowledge about the VOC released from P. halepensis needles and roots, determine if these VOC affect the seed germination and root growth of two herbaceous target species (Lactuca sativa and Linum strictum), and evaluate if soil microorganisms modulate the potential allelopathic effects of these VOC. Thirty terpenes were detected from both, needle and root emissions with β‐caryophyllene as the major volatile. Numerous terpenes, such as β‐caryophyllene, δ‐terpinene, or α‐pinene, showed higher headspace concentrations according to the gradient green needles < senescent needles < needle litter. Seed germination and root growth of the two target species were mainly reduced in presence of P. halepensis VOC. In strong contrast with the trend reported with needle leachates in literature, we observed an increasing inhibitory effect of P. halepensis VOC with the progress of needle physiological stages (i.e., green needle < senescent needle < needle litter). Surprisingly, several inhibitory effects observed on filter paper were also found or even amplified when natural soil was used as a substrate, highlighting that soil microorganisms do not necessarily limit the negative effects of VOC released by P. halepensis on herbaceous target species.     

Dynamics of Myzus persicae arrestment by volatiles from Potato leafroll virus‐infected potato plants during disease progression

Green peach aphid, Myzus persicae (Sulzer) (Hemiptera: Aphididae), an important pest of potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) (Solanaceae), preferentially settles on Potato leafroll virus (PLRV)‐infected potato plants as compared with non‐infected ones, primarily in response to volatile organic compounds (VOCs) released by the plants. In this study, we examined the dynamics of these effects, measuring arrestment of apterous M. persicae in response to VOC from upper, middle, and lower leaflets of PLRV‐infected potato plants at the same stage in disease progression (4 weeks after inoculation), but inoculated at 1, 3, or 5 weeks after transplanting (WAT). Sham‐inoculated plants were used as controls and VOC were collected and quantified. Aphid arrestment was greater on PLRV‐infected plants inoculated at 1 and 3 WAT as compared with sham‐inoculated plants, but this preference was reversed in plants inoculated at 5 WAT. Relative arrestment of M. persicae by infected plants and VOC release was greater for lower and middle leaflets than for upper leaflets at 1 and 3 WAT compared to sham‐inoculated plants. The reverse was observed in plants inoculated at 5 WAT. Findings indicate that aphid preference is influenced by VOC release from PLRV‐ or sham‐inoculated potato plants and that VOC emissions and aphid preference depend upon the age at inoculation and leaf position within the potato plants. The implications of these dynamics in vector behavior for spread of PLRV in the field in natural and managed systems are discussed.     

Volatile-mediated signalling in barley induces metabolic reprogramming and resistance against the biotrophic fungus Blumeria hordei

• Plants have evolved diverse secondary metabolites to counteract biotic stress. Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are released upon herbivore attack or pathogen infection. Recent studies suggest that VOCs can act as signalling molecules in plant defence and induce resistance in distant organs and neighbouring plants. However, knowledge is lacking on the function of VOCs in biotrophic fungal infection on cereal plants.
• We analysed VOCs emitted by 13 ± 1-day-old barley plants (Hordeum vulgare L.) after mechanical wounding using passive absorbers and TD-GC/MS. We investigated the effect of pure VOC and complex VOC mixtures released from wounded plants on the barley–powdery mildew interaction by pre-exposure in a dynamic headspace connected to a powdery mildew susceptibility assay. Untargeted metabolomics and lipidomics were applied to investigate metabolic changes in sender and receiver barley plants.
• Green leaf volatiles (GLVs) dominated the volatile profile of wounded barley plants, with (Z)-3-hexenyl acetate (Z3HAC) as the most abundant compound. Barley volatiles emitted after mechanical wounding enhanced resistance in receiver plants towards fungal infection. We found volatile-mediated modifications of the plant–pathogen interaction in a concentration-dependent manner. Pre-exposure with physiologically relevant concentrations of Z3HAC resulted in induced resistance, suggesting that this GLV is a key player in barley anti-pathogen defence.
• The complex VOC mixture released from wounded barley and Z3HAC induced e.g. accumulation of chlorophyll, linolenic acid and linolenate-conjugated lipids, as well as defence-related secondary metabolites, such as hordatines in receiving plants. Barley VOCs hence induce a complex physiological response and disease resistance in receiver plants.

     

Defining adult asthma endotypes by clinical features and patterns of volatile organic compounds in exhaled air

Background

Several classifications of adult asthma patients using cluster analyses based on clinical and demographic information has resulted in clinical phenotypic clusters that do not address molecular mechanisms. Volatile organic compounds (VOC) in exhaled air are released during inflammation in response to oxidative stress as a result of activated leukocytes. VOC profiles in exhaled air could distinguish between asthma patients and healthy subjects. In this study, we aimed to classify new asthma endotypes by combining inflammatory mechanisms investigated by VOC profiles in exhaled air and clinical information of asthma patients.

Methods

Breath samples were analyzed for VOC profiles by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry from asthma patients (n = 195) and healthy controls (n = 40). A total of 945 determined compounds were subjected to discriminant analysis to find those that could discriminate healthy from asthmatic subjects. 2-step cluster analysis based on clinical information and VOCs in exhaled air were used to form asthma endotypes.

Results

We identified 16 VOCs, which could distinguish between healthy and asthma subjects with a sensitivity of 100% and a specificity of 91.1%. Cluster analysis based on VOCs in exhaled air and the clinical parameters FEV1, FEV1 change after 3 weeks of hospitalization, allergic sensitization, Junipers symptoms score and asthma medications resulted in the formation of 7 different asthma endotype clusters. We identified asthma clusters with different VOC profiles but similar clinical characteristics and endotypes with similar VOC profiles, but distinct clinical characteristics.

Conclusion

This study demonstrates that both, clinical presentation of asthma and inflammatory mechanisms in the airways should be considered for classification of asthma subtypes.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12931-014-0136-8) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

Microbial compositions and metabolic interactions in one- and two-phase partitioning airlift bioreactors treating a complex VOC mixture

Engineered microbial ecosystems in bioscrubbers for the treatment of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) have been complicated by complex VOC mixtures from various industrial emissions. Microbial associations with VOC removal performance of the bioscrubbers are still not definitive. Here, one- and two-phase partitioning airlift bioreactors were used for the treatment of a complex VOC mixture. Microbial characteristics in both bioreactors were uncovered by high-throughput metagenomics sequencing. Results showed that dominant species with specialized VOC biodegradability were mainly responsible for high removal efficiency of relative individual VOC. Competitive enzyme inhibitions among the VOC mixture were closely related to the deterioration of removal performance for individual VOC. Relative to the mass transfer resistance, the specialized biodegrading functions of microbial inoculations and enzymatic interactions among individual VOC biodegradation also must be carefully evaluated to optimize the treatment of complex VOC mixtures in bioreactors.     

Microbial consumption and production of volatile organic compounds at the soil-litter interface

Substantial amounts of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) can be released during decomposition and these compounds can affect atmospheric chemistry, belowground processes, and the structure of microbial communities in litter and soil. However, we have a limited understanding of the types, quantities and ecological impacts of VOCs emitted from litter. Here we used a closed flow-through system and proton transfer reaction mass spectrometry (PTR-MS) to characterize VOC emissions from soil and two litter types (Pinus taeda and Acer rubrum) over a 72-day incubation period. Microbial respiration rates were measured throughout the incubation, and the soils were harvested at the end of the incubation to determine how litter VOCs influenced soil C dynamics, N mineralization rates, and bacterial communities. Using the PTR-MS we identified over 100 VOCs, with 10 VOCs making up the majority of emissions. VOCs accounted for up to 2.5% of the C flux from litter. Soil was a net sink of litter VOCs, absorbing up to 80% of VOCs released by litter, and exposure of soil to litter VOCs increased microbial respiration rates in soil by up to 15%. However, we observed negligible impacts of litter VOCs on soil nutrient levels and bacterial community structure, suggesting that soils must be exposed to higher concentrations of VOCs than observed in our study, to cause effects on these soil characteristics. Overall, VOCs appear to have an important influence on C dynamics at the soil-litter interface and VOC emissions from decomposing litter may represent an understudied component of biosphere–atmosphere interactions.     

Impact of flooding and drought conditions on the emission of volatile organic compounds of Quercus robur and Prunus serotina

We conducted measurements with oak (Quercus robur L.) and black cherry (Prunus serotina Ehrh.) seedlings to investigate their volatile organic compound (VOC) emission behavior to flooding and drought conditions. A novel cuvette enclosure approach was applied on 18 individuals and emission rates were derived using proton transfer reaction-mass spectrometry (PTR-MS) and gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS) techniques. Complementary chlorophyll fluorescence and CO₂ uptake measurements were performed for all of the samples. Q. robur seedlings remained unaffected by flood. On the contrary, P. serotina seedlings reduced their chlorophyll fluorescence yield by 34.5 ± 4.1 % and their CO₂ uptake by 67.5 ± 10.5 %. These observations along with the highest acetaldehyde emissions recorded indicate strong susceptibility to water stress. Drought had a similar impact on both species that reduced chlorophyll fluorescence yield, CO₂ uptake, and the emission rates of most VOC. Nevertheless, isoprene was found to be emitted more than 20 times stronger by Q. robur seedlings under all treatments. In general, most VOC emissions increased with soil water availability displaying an exponential trend for acetaldehyde and methanol and a linear one for the sum of mono- and sesquiterpenes. Only methyl salicylate was released about two times stronger from oaks under drought conditions in comparison to wet conditions. Considering their VOC emission behavior, Q. robur seedlings appear to tolerate flood much better than P. serotina and thus it is likely to have a competing advantage under these conditions.     

Volatile Emission in Bracken Fern Is Induced by Jasmonates but Not by Spodoptera littoralis or Strongylogaster multifasciata Herbivory

Jasmonate-mediated regulation of VOC emission has been extensively investigated in higher plants, however, only little is known about VOC production and its regulation in ferns. Here, we investigate whether the emission of VOCs from bracken fern Pteridium aquilinum is triggered by herbivory and if so - whether it is regulated by the octadecanoid signaling pathway. Interestingly, feeding of both generalist (Spodoptera littoralis) and specialist (Strongylogaster multifasciata) herbivores as well as application of singular and continuous mechanical wounding of fronds induced only very low levels of VOC emission. In contrast, treatment with jasmonic acid (JA) led to the emission of a blend of VOCs that was mainly comprised of terpenoids. Likewise, treatment with the JA precursor 12-oxo-phytodienoic acid (OPDA) and α-linolenic acid also induced VOC emission, albeit to a lower intesity than the JA treatment. Accumulation of endogenous JA was low in mechanically wounded fronds and these levels were unaffected by the application of oral secretions from both generalist or specialist herbivores. The emission of terpenoids upon JA treatment could be blocked with fosmidomycin and mevinolin, which are inhibitors of the MEP- and MVA pathways, respectively. These results indicate that similar to higher plants, terpenoid VOCs are produced via these pathways in bracken fern and that these pathways are JA-responsive. However, the very low amounts of terpenoids released after herbivory or mechanical damage are in stark contrast to what is known from higher plants. We speculate that S. multifasciata and S. littoralis feeding apparently did not induce the threshold levels of JA required for activating the MEP and MVA pathways and the subsequent volatile emission in bracken fern.     

Isolation and characterization of novel inducible serine protease inhibitors from larval hemolymph of the greater wax moth Galleria mellonella.

Three inducible serine protease inhibitors (ISPI-1, 2, 3) have been purified from larval hemolymph of greater wax moth larvae, Galleria mellonella, and characterized at a molecular level. These inhibitors were synthesized after larvae were injected with a yeast polysaccharide, zymosan preparation. ISPI-1,2,3 were active against various serine proteases including trypsin and toxic proteases released by the entomopathogenic fungus Metarhizium anisopliae. Precipitation by trichloroacetic acid and heat, followed by FPLC and HPLC separation steps were used for purification of the protease inhibitors from cell-free hemolymph samples. The molecular masses of purified proteins were determined by MS to be 9.2 kDa (ISPI-1), 6.3 kDa (ISPI-2) and 8.2 kDa (ISPI-3) with isoelectric points ranging between 7.2 and 8.3. The N-terminal amino-acid sequences of ISPI-1 and ISPI-3 are not similar to other known proteins, whereas that of ISPI-2 exhibits extensive similarity to known Kunitz-type protease inhibitors.     

Gastropod grazing on a benthic alga leads to liberation of food‐finding infochemicals

Chemical information transfer is a major agent in the regulation of interspecific and intraspecific interactions in natural ecosystems. One important group of such infochemicals both in terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems are so‐called volatile organic compounds (VOCs) that can evoke behavioral or physiological responses like predator avoidance and mate or host location. In previous work, we have demonstrated that freshwater gastropods utilize VOCs released from benthic algae as food finding cues, although the specific nature of the VOC release and perception were not yet clear. Therefore we tested whether gastropod grazing on biofilms leads to algal cell damage and a subsequent liberation of wounding‐associated VOCs. In bioassays we investigated the algal VOC bouquet level which is necessary to elicit a behavioural response of freshwater gastropods. The results of the liberation experiment showed that gastropod grazing leads to VOCs release. We also found that a certain threshold level of volatiles is necessary for snails to recognise the volatile infochemicals and subsequently respond with a directed foraging behaviour towards the odour. Finally, a calculated mass balance model demonstrated that the grazer mediated VOC release produced a signal concentration that is sufficient to be recognized by conspecifics and utilized as foraging infochemicals. The emission of ecologically relevant volatiles through snail grazing with subsequent attraction of other gastropod grazers to algal biofilms indicates an important but so far understudied chemical signaling mechanism of ecological importance.     

Nitrogen partitioning in Heterorhabditis bacteriophora-infected hosts and the effects of nitrogen on attraction/repulsion

Entomopathogenic nematode behavior is affected by the condition of their infected hosts. We hypothesized that nitrogen compounds released from infected hosts may be one factor affecting entomopathogenic nematode host-finding and infection behaviors. Our objectives were to (1) investigate the partitioning of nitrogen in Galleria mellonella (L.) infected by Heterorhabditis bacteriophora Poinar and (2) determine attraction and repulsion of H. bacteriophora to various quantities of nitrogen (ammonia). Volatile (ammonia), organic, and inorganic nitrogen forms were monitored during the course of infection. Approximately 0.052 mg of nitrogen was released from a single infected host as volatile ammonia. Most of the ammonia release was detected within the first 3 days postinoculation. Organic nitrogen increased during the course of infection, whereas inorganic nitrogen decreased. The net nitrogen change in the infected host consisted of a loss of approximately 47 mg, most of which was lost within the 1st week of infection. Accelerated loss of nitrogen early in the infection process was likely correlated with activity and growth of bacterial symbionts. Increased organic nitrogen was likely associated with nematode reproduction within the host. Attraction or repulsion of H. bacteriophora to nitrogen (ammonium hydroxide) was measured on agar quadrant plates. Nematodes were attracted to 16 and 160 microg of nitrogen and repelled by concentrations of 1600 and 8000 microg. Our data indicate that nitrogen released from H. bacteriophora-infected hosts attracts nematodes at lower levels (early in the infection) and repels them at higher concentrations (later in the infection process).     

Distribution and characterisation of entomopathogenic fungi from Korean soils

We investigated the occurrence of entomopathogenic fungi in 1080 soil samples representing multiple locations and conditions in Korea. Entomopathogenic fungi were isolated from soils using a selective medium containing dodine and antibiotics. Following an initial identification based on morphology, the fungal isolates were more precisely identified by the sequence of their nuclear ribosomal RNA (rRNA) internal transcribed spacer (ITS) regions. As a result, entomopathogenic fungi were found to occur in 32% (342 isolates) of the soil samples studied. The most abundant species were Beauveria spp. (125 isolates) and Metarhizium spp. (82 isolates). Entomopathogenic fungi were more often recovered from natural mountain and riparian soils than from agricultural habitats. The pathogenicity of isolated fungi was evaluated by using wax moth Galleria mellonella L. (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) larvae. It was determined that 60% (207 isolates) of the isolates were pathogenic using this model. These entomopathogenic fungi may, therefore, have potential use against a variety of agricultural pests. This is the first study of the isolation and distribution of entomopathogenic fungi in representative sampling locations throughout Korea.     

Effect of water activity on the production of volatile organic compounds by Muscodor albus and their effect on three pathogens in stored potato

Muscodor albus (Xylariaceae, Ascomycetes) isolate CZ-620 produces antimicrobial volatile organic?compounds (VOC), which appear to have potential for the control of various postharvest diseases. The effect of water activity (Aw) on the production of VOC by M. albus culture, and their inhibitory effects on the growth of three pathogens of potato tuber (Fusarium sambucinum, Helminthosporium solani, and Pectobacterium atrosepticum) and the development of diseases caused by the three pathogens (dry rot, silver scurf, and bacterial soft rot, respectively)?were investigated. Rye grain culture of the fungus produced six alcohols, three aldehydes, five acids or esters, and two terpenoids. The most abundant VOC were: isobutyric acid; bulnesene, a sesquiterpene; an unidentified terpene; 2 and 3-methyl-1-butanol; and ethanol. However, the level of each of those VOC varied with Aw of the culture. Emission activity?occurred mainly at Aw above 0.75 and high emission of most VOC occurred only at Aw above 0.90. The aldehydes (2-methyl-propanal and 3-methyl-butanal) were the only VOC produced in quantities below an Aw of 0.90. An Aw value of 0.96 favored maximum emission of acids, esters, and terpenoids. There was a higher production of alcohols and a decrease in aldehydes with increase in Aw. Isobutyric acid, which has been the main M.?albus VOC monitored in previous studies as an indicator of antifungal activity, had a rather narrow optimum, peaking at Aw of 0.96 and declining sharply above 0.98. Results showed that substrate Aw affects the production dynamics of each group of VOC by the fungus, and suggest that VOC production can be prolonged by maintaining M. albus culture at a constant optimum Aw. The VOC was inhibitory to F. sambucinum, H. solani, and P. atrosepticum; and biofumigation with M. albus significantly reduced dry rot and soft rot development, and completely controlled silver scurf in inoculated tubers incubated at both 8°C and 22°C. The results show that Aw of grain culture affects the production of VOC by M.?albus; and that the VOC inhibit the growth of the tested pathogens and the diseases caused by them in potato?tubers.     

Volatile organic compounds produced by Saccharomyces cerevisiae inhibit the in vitro development of Guignardia citricarpa,the causal agent of citrus black spot

Due to the low chemical control effectiveness of citrus black spot, caused by the fungus Guignardia citricarpa at postharvest, and to the search for alternative control methods, this study aimed to evaluate the in vitro effect of volatile organic compounds (VOCs), produced by yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, on G. citricarpa. It was observed that the yeast strains evaluated acted as antagonists by VOC production, whose maximum inhibitory capacity was as high as 87.2%. The presence of fermentable carbon sources in the medium was essential for the bioactive VOC production by the yeast. The analysis of VOCs produced in PDA medium by SPME–GC–MS indicated the presence of high quantities of alcohols as well as esters. An artificial VOC mixture prepared on the basis of the composition of the VOCs mimicked the inhibitory effects of the natural VOCs released by S. cerevisiae. Thus, the VOCs produced by the yeast or the artificial mixtures can be a promising control method for citrus black spot or others postharvest diseases.     

Proton-transfer-reaction mass spectrometry as a new tool for real time analysis of root-secreted volatile organic compounds in Arabidopsis

Plant roots release about 5% to 20% of all photosynthetically-fixed carbon, and as a result create a carbon-rich environment for numerous rhizosphere organisms, including plant pathogens and symbiotic microbes. Although some characterization of root exudates has been achieved, especially of secondary metabolites and proteins, much less is known about volatile organic compounds (VOCs) released by roots. In this communication, we describe a novel approach to exploring these rhizosphere VOCs and their induction by biotic stresses. The VOC formation of Arabidopsis roots was analyzed using proton-transfer-reaction mass spectrometry (PTR-MS), a new technology that allows rapid and real time analysis of most biogenic VOCs without preconcentration or chromatography. Our studies revealed that the major VOCs released and identified by both PTR-MS and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry were either simple metabolites, ethanol, acetaldehyde, acetic acid, ethyl acetate, 2-butanone, 2,3,-butanedione, and acetone, or the monoterpene, 1,8-cineole. Some VOCs were found to be produced constitutively regardless of the treatment; other VOCs were induced specifically as a result of different compatible and noncompatible interactions between microbes and insects and Arabidopsis roots. Compatible interactions of Pseudomonas syringae DC3000 and Diuraphis noxia with Arabidopsis roots resulted in the rapid release of 1,8-cineole, a monoterpene that has not been previously reported in Arabidopsis. Mechanical injuries to Arabidopsis roots did not produce 1,8-cineole nor any C6 wound-VOCs; compatible interactions between Arabidopsis roots and Diuraphis noxia did not produce any wound compounds. This suggests that Arabidopsis roots respond to wounding differently from above-ground plant organs. Trials with incompatible interactions did not reveal a set of compounds that was significantly different compared to the noninfected roots. The PTR-MS method may open the way for functional root VOC analysis that will complement genomic investigations in Arabidopsis.