Evaluation of substrate and inhibitor binding to yeast and human isoprenylcysteine carboxyl methyltransferases (Icmts) using biotinylated benzophenone-containing photoaffinity probes

The technology of real-time imaging in living cells is crucial for understanding of intracellular events. For this purpose, bioluminescent reporters have been introduced as sensitive and convenient tools. Metridia luciferase (MLuc) from the copepod Metridia longa is a coelenterazine-dependent luciferase containing a natural signal peptide for secretion. We report the high-active MLuc mutants with deletion of the N-terminal variable part of amino acid sequence. The MLuc variants were produced in Escherichia coli cells, converted to an active protein, and characterized. We demonstrate that the truncated MLucs have significantly increased bioluminescent activity as against the wild type enzyme but substantially retain other properties. One of the truncated variants of MLuc was transiently expressed in HEK 293 cells. The results clearly suggest that the truncated Metridia luciferase is well suited as a secreted reporter ensuring higher detection sensitivity in comparison with a wild type enzyme.     

Coelenterazine-binding protein of Renilla muelleri: cDNA cloning, overexpression, and characterization as a substrate of luciferase.

The Renilla bioluminescent system in vivo is comprised of three proteins--the luciferase, green-fluorescent protein, and coelenterazine-binding protein (CBP), previously called luciferin-binding protein (LBP). This work reports the cloning of the full-size cDNA encoding CBP from soft coral Renilla muelleri, its overexpression and properties of the recombinant protein. The apo-CBP was quantitatively converted to CBP by simple incubation with coelenterazine. The physicochemical properties of this recombinant CBP are determined to be practically the same as those reported for the CBP (LBP) of R. reniformis. CBP is a member of the four-EF-hand Ca(2+)-binding superfamily of proteins with only three of the EF-hand loops having the Ca(2+)-binding consensus sequences. There is weak sequence homology with the Ca(2+)-regulated photoproteins but only as a result of the necessary Ca(2+)-binding loop structure. In combination with Renilla luciferase, addition of only one Ca(2+) is sufficient to release the coelenterazine as a substrate for the luciferase for bioluminescence. This combination of the two proteins generates bioluminescence with higher reaction efficiency than using free coelenterazine alone as the substrate for luciferase. This increased quantum yield, a difference of bioluminescence spectra, and markedly different kinetics, implicate that a CBP-luciferase complex might be involved.     

A real time Metridia luciferase based non-invasive reporter assay of mammalian cell viability and cytotoxicity via the β-actin promoter and enhancer

Secreted reporter molecules offer a means to evaluate biological processes in real time without the need to sacrifice samples at pre-determined endpoints. Here we have adapted the secreted bioluminescent reporter gene, Metridia luciferase, for use in a real-time viability assay for mammalian cells. The coding region of the marine copepod gene has been codon optimized for expression in human cells (hMLuc) and placed under the control of the human β-actin promoter and enhancer. Metridia luciferase activity of stably transfected cell models corresponded linearly with cell number over a 4-log dynamic range, detecting as few as 40 cells. When compared to standard endpoint viability assays, which measure the mitochondrial dehydrogenase reduction of tetrazolium salts, the hMLuc viability assay had a broader linear range of detection, was applicable to large tissue culture vessels, and allowed the same sample to be repeatedly measured over several days. Additional studies confirmed that MLuc activity was inhibited by serum, but demonstrated that assay activity remained linear and was measurable in the serum of mice bearing subcutaneous hMLuc-expressing tumors. In summary, these comparative studies demonstrate the value of humanized Metridia luciferase as an inexpensive and non-invasive method for analyzing viable cell number, growth, tumor volume, and therapeutic response in real time.     

Alkaline phosphatase vs luciferase as secreted reporter molecules in vivo

Secreted alkaline phosphatase (SEAP) and Metridia luciferase (MLuc) are useful reporter molecules in vitro, but little is understood about their usefulness in vivo. In this study, we investigated in vivo activity of recombinant SEAP and MLuc in blood and urine. When SEAP-transfected cells or recombinant SEAP were injected into rats, substantial increase in the level of serum SEAP was observed. In contrast, activity of SEAP was not detected in urine of rats injected with either the SEAP-transfected cells or recombinant SEAP. SEAP activity was also undetectable in urine of SEAP-injected Nagase analbuminemic rats in which glomerular permeability to macromolecules is enhanced. When MLuc-transfected cells were implanted into rats, activity of MLuc was undetectable not only in urine but also in serum. Even immediately after intravenous injection of recombinant MLuc, activity of MLuc was not detected in serum. Subsequent experiments revealed that, in contrast to SEAP, MLuc was rapidly inactivated either by rat serum, fetal bovine serum, or human serum. Albumin was identified as the molecule responsible for the inhibition of MLuc activity. These data elucidated advantages and limitations of secreted reporter molecules SEAP and MLuc under in vivo situations.     

Substrate cooperativity in marine luciferases

Marine luciferases are increasingly used as reporters to study gene regulation. These luciferases have utility in bioluminescent assay development, although little has been reported on their catalytic properties in response to substrate concentration. Here, we report that the two marine luciferases from the copepods, Gaussia princeps (GLuc) and Metridia longa (MLuc) were found, surprisingly, to produce light in a cooperative manner with respect to their luciferin substrate concentration; as the substrate concentration was decreased 10 fold the rate of light production decreased 1000 fold. This positive cooperative effect is likely a result of allostery between the two proposed catalytic domains found in Gaussia and Metridia. In contrast, the marine luciferases from Renilla reniformis (RLuc) and Cypridina noctiluca (CLuc) demonstrate a linear relationship between the concentration of their respective luciferin and the rate of light produced. The consequences of these enzyme responses are discussed.     

Calcium binding properties of recombinant calcium binding protein 40, a major calcium binding protein of lower eukaryote Physarum polycephalum

Calcium binding protein 40 (CBP40) is a Ca(2+)-binding protein abundant in the plasmodia of Physarum polycephalum. CBP40 consists four EF-hand domains in the COOH-terminal half and a putative alpha-helix domain in the NH(2)-terminal half. We expressed recombinant proteins of CBP40 in Escherichia coli to investigate its Ca(2+)-binding properties. Recombinant proteins of CBP40 bound 4 mol of Ca(2+) with much higher affinity (pCa(1/2) = 6.5) than that of calmodulin. When residues 1-196 of the alpha-helix domain were deleted, the affinity for Ca(2+) decreased to pCa(1/2) = 4.6. A chimeric calmodulin was generated by conjugating the alpha-helix domain of CBP40 with calmodulin. The affinity of Ca(2+) for the chimeric calmodulin was higher than that for calmodulin, suggesting that the alpha-helix domain is responsible for the high affinity of CBP40 for Ca(2+). CBP40 forms large aggregates reversibly in a Ca(2+)-dependent manner. A mutant protein with a deletion of NH(2)-terminal 32 residues, however, could not aggregate, indicating the importance of these residues for the aggregation. The aggregation occurs above micromolar levels of Ca(2+) concentration, so it may only occur when CBP40 is secreted out of the plasmodial cells.     

Metal-free and Ca2+-bound structures of a multidomain EF-hand protein,CBP40, from the lower eukaryote Physarum polycephalum

Acellular slime mold, Physarum polycephalum, has a unique wound-healing system. When cytoplasm of plasmodia is exposed to extracellular fluid, calcium binding protein 40 (CBP40) seals damaged areas, forming large aggregates Ca(2+) dependently. Part of the CBP40 is truncated at the N terminus by a proteinase in plasmodia (CBP40delta), which does not aggregate in the Ca(2+)-bound form. Here we report the crystal structures of CBP40delta in both the metal-free and the Ca(2+)-bound states. Both structures consist of three domains: coiled-coil, intervening, and EF-hand. The topology of the EF-hand domain is similar to that of calpain. The N-terminal half of CBP40Delta interacts with the C-terminal EF-hands through a large hydrophobic interface, necessary for high Ca(2+) affinity. Conformational change upon Ca(2+) binding is small; however, the structure of CBP40delta provides novel insights into the mechanism of Ca(2+)-dependent oligomerization.     

Characterization and hetereologous expression of cDNAs encoding two novel closely related Ca(2+)-binding proteins in Dictyostelium discoideum

During a yeast two hybrid screen of a Dictyostelium cDNA library using the Ca(2+)-binding protein CBP1 as bait, we isolated a full-length cDNA encoding a novel Ca(2+)-binding protein (termed CBP4a). The protein is composed of 162 amino acids and contains four consensus EF-hands. PCR amplification of Dictyostelium genomic DNA using primers specific for the cDNA sequence resulted in the isolation of a gene encoding a different Ca(2+)-binding protein of 162 amino acids (designated CBP4b) with 90% amino acid sequence identity to CBP4a. Southern blot analysis confirmed the presence of two closely related genes in the Dictyostelium genome. CBP4a and CBP4b mRNAs are expressed at the same stages of development as CBP1 mRNA. In addition, both novel proteins bind (45)Ca(2+) and interact with CBP1 in vitro in a Ca(2+)-dependent manner.     

Two forms of secreted and thermostable luciferases from the marine copepod crustacean, Metridia pacifica

We cloned two forms of the secreted and thermostable luciferase genes, MpLuc1 and MpLuc2, from the marine copepod, Metridia pacifica. The 840-bp MpLuc1 cDNA comprised a 630-bp open reading frame encoding a 210-amino acid polypeptide (22.7 kDa). MpLuc1 had the closest homology with Metridia longa luciferase. The 753-bp MpLuc2 cDNA consisted of a 567-bp open reading frame (20.3 kDa), and it had the closest homology with Gaussia princeps luciferase. Single-specimen genomic PCR confirmed the presence of two luciferase genes in M. pacifica, and single-specimen RT-PCR revealed that both luciferase mRNAs were expressed. Both MpLuc1 and MpLuc2 (MpLucs) specifically reacted with the substrate coelenterazine producing identical bioluminescent spectra (lambdamax, 485 nm), but with different kinetics. Adding salt such as MgCl2 and CaCl2 to the reaction mixture significantly enhanced MpLuc1 and MpLuc2 activities. Wild-type MpLucs were remarkably thermostable; MpLuc1 retained about 60% of the original activity even after incubation at 90 degrees C for 30 min. MpLucs expressed in NIH-3T3 and HeLa cells were largely secreted into the culture medium. Continuous monitoring of secreted MpLuc1 driven by the c-fos promoter demonstrated the potential usefulness of MpLuc1 in nondisruptive reporter assays.     

Cloning and expression of cDNA for a luciferase from the marine copepod Metridia longa. A novel secreted bioluminescent reporter enzyme

Metridia longa is a marine copepod from which a blue bioluminescence originates as a secretion from epidermal glands in response to various stimuli. We demonstrate that Metridia luciferase is specific for coelenterazine to produce blue light (lambda(max) = 480 nm). Using an expression cDNA library and functional screening, we cloned and sequenced the cDNA encoding the Metridia luciferase. The cDNA is an 897-bp fragment with a 656-bp open reading frame, which encodes a 219-amino acid polypeptide with a molecular weight of 23,885. The polypeptide contains an N-terminal signal peptide of 17 amino acid residues for secretion. On expression of the Metridia luciferase gene in mammalian Chinese hamster ovary cells the luciferase is detected in the culture medium confirming the existence of a naturally occurring signal peptide for secretion in the cloned luciferase. The novel secreted luciferase was tested in a practical assay application in which the activity of A2a and NPY2 G-protein-coupled receptors was detected. These results clearly suggest that the secreted Metridia luciferase is well suited as a reporter for monitoring gene expression and, in particular, for the development of novel ultrahigh throughput screening technologies.     

Calcium-regulated photoproteins of marine coelenterates

Ca(2+)-regulated photoproteins are bioluminescent proteins responsible for bioluminescence of marine coelenterates. The photoprotein molecule is a stable enzyme-substrate complex consisting of a single polypeptide chain and an oxygen "pre-activated" substrate, 2-hydroperoxycoelenterazine, which is tightly but non-covalently bound with a protein. The bioluminescence is triggered by calcium ions and originates from an oxidative decarboxylation of a protein bound substrate. The review provides current data on the photoproteins structure, the mechanism of bioluminescent reaction, the function of some amino acid residues of an active site in the catalysis and the formation of the emitter, as well as on applications of these proteins in a bioluminescent analysis.     

A diffusible signal from arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi elicits a transient cytosolic calcium elevation in host plant cells

The implication of calcium as intracellular messenger in the arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) symbiosis has not yet been directly demonstrated, although often envisaged. We used soybean (Glycine max) cell cultures stably expressing the bioluminescent Ca(2+) indicator aequorin to detect intracellular Ca(2+) changes in response to the culture medium of spores of Gigaspora margarita germinating in the absence of the plant partner. Rapid and transient elevations in cytosolic free Ca(2+) were recorded, indicating that diffusible molecules released by the mycorrhizal fungus are perceived by host plant cells through a Ca(2+)-mediated signaling. Similar responses were also triggered by two Glomus isolates. The fungal molecules active in generating the Ca(2+) transient were constitutively released in the medium, and the induced Ca(2+) signature was not modified by the coculture of germinating spores with plant cells. Even ungerminated spores were able to generate the signaling molecules, as proven when the germination was blocked by a low temperature. The fungal molecules were found to be stable to heat treatment, of small molecular mass (<3 kD), and, on the basis of extraction with an organic solvent, partially lipophilic. Evidence for the specificity of such an early fungal signal to the AM symbiosis is suggested by the lack of a Ca(2+) response in cultured cells of the nonhost plant Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) and by the up-regulation in soybean cells of genes related to Medicago truncatula DMI1, DMI2, and DMI3 and considered essential for the establishment of the AM symbiosis.     

Mibefradil improves beta-adrenergic responsiveness and intracellular Ca(2+) handling in hypertrophied rat myocardium

The present study investigated the effects of mibefradil, a novel T-type channel blocker, on ventricular function and intracellular Ca(2+) handling in normal and hypertrophied rat myocardium. Ca(2+) transient was measured with the bioluminescent protein, aequorin. Mibefradil (2 microM) produced nonsignificant changes in isometric contraction and peak systolic intracellular Ca(2+) concentration ([Ca(2+)](i)) in normal rat myocardium. Hypertrophied papillary muscles isolated from aortic-banded rats 10 weeks after operation demonstrated a prolonged duration of isometric contraction, as well as decreased amplitudes of developed tension and peak Ca(2+) transient compared with the sham-operated group. Additionally, diastolic [Ca(2+)](i) increased in hypertrophied rat myocardium. The positive inotropic effect of isoproterenol stimulation was blunted in hypertrophied muscles despite a large increase in Ca(2+) transient amplitude. Afterglimmers and corresponding aftercontractions were provoked with isoproterenol (10(-5) and 10(-4) M) stimulation in 4 out of 16 hypertrophied muscles, but were eliminated in the presence of mibefradil (2 microM). In addition, hypertrophied muscles in the presence of mibefradil had a significant improvement of contractile response to isoproterenol stimulation and a reduced diastolic [Ca(2+)](I), although a mild decrease of peak Ca(2+)-transient was also shown. However, verapamil (2 microM) did not restore the inotropic and Ca(2+) modulating effects of isoproterenol in hypertrophied myocardium. Mibefradil partly restores the positive inotropic response to beta-adrenergic stimulation in hypertrophied myocardium from aortic-banded rats, an effect that might be useful in hypertrophied myocardium with impaired [Ca(2+)](i) homeostasis.     

Ca2+ oscillations stimulate an ATP increase during fertilization of mouse eggs

Mammalian eggs and embryos rely upon mitochondrial ATP production to survive and proceed through preimplantation development. Ca(2+) oscillations at fertilization have been shown to cause a reduction of mitochondrial NAD+ and flavoproteins, suggesting they might also cause changes in cytosolic ATP levels. Here, we have monitored intracellular Ca(2+) and ATP levels in fertilizing mouse eggs by imaging the fluorescence of a Ca(2+) dye and luminescence of firefly luciferase. At fertilization an initial increase in ATP levels occurs with the first Ca(2+) transient, with a second increase occurring about 1 h later. The increase in cytosolic ATP was estimated to be from a prefertilization concentration of 1.9 mM to a peak value of 3 mM. ATP levels returned to prefertilization values as the Ca(2+) oscillations terminated. An increase in ATP also occurred with other stimuli that increase Ca(2+) and it was blocked when Ca(2+) oscillations were inhibited by BAPTA injection. Additionally, an ATP increase was not seen when eggs were activated by cycloheximide, which does not cause a Ca(2+) increase. These data suggest that mammalian fertilization is associated with a sudden but transient increase in cytosolic ATP and that Ca(2+) oscillations are both necessary and sufficient to cause this increase in ATP levels.     

Dictyostelium CBP3 associates with actin cytoskeleton and is related to slug migration

Calcium-binding protein 3 (CBP3) expression was up-regulated under the control of the actin 15 promoter and down-regulated by RNA interference in Dictyostelium discoideum. The overexpression of CBP3 accelerated cell aggregation and formed small aggregates and fruiting body. CBP3-inhibited cells showed uneven aggregation and increased slug trail lengths toward the directed light, whereas CBP3-overexpressing cells showed the opposite phenomena. Under dark condition, the enhanced slug trail length was also observed in the CBP3-inhibited cells. Yeast two-hybrid screening identified actin 8 as interacting protein with CBP3. The interaction between CBP3 and actin was confirmed by beta-galactosidase assay and surface plasmon resonance. CBP3 was associated with Triton X-100-insoluble cytoskeleton in the presence of Ca(2+) and the interaction of CBP3 with cytoskeleton was increased by the addition of Ca(2+). Using fluorescence microscopy, CBP3 was also shown to associate with the actin cytoskeleton during development. Subcellular fractionation indicated that CBP3 was enriched in cytosolic fraction. Taken together, these results suggest that CBP3 interacts with actin cytoskeleton and has a role during cell aggregation and slug migration of Dictyostelium.     

Loss of the major isoform of phosphoglucomutase results in altered calcium homeostasis in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Phosphoglucomutase (PGM) is a key enzyme in glucose metabolism, where it catalyzes the interconversion of glucose 1-phosphate (Glc-1-P) and glucose 6-phosphate (Glc-6-P). In this study, we make the novel observation that PGM is also involved in the regulation of cellular Ca(2+) homeostasis in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. When a strain lacking the major isoform of PGM (pgm2Delta) was grown on media containing galactose as sole carbon source, its rate of Ca(2+) uptake was 5-fold higher than an isogenic wild-type strain. This increased rate of Ca(2+) uptake resulted in a 9-fold increase in the steady-state total cellular Ca(2+) level. The fraction of cellular Ca(2+) located in the exchangeable pool in the pgm2Delta strain was found to be as large as the exchangeable fraction observed in wild-type cells, suggesting that the depletion of Golgi Ca(2+) stores is not responsible for the increased rate of Ca(2+) uptake. We also found that growth of the pgm2Delta strain on galactose media is inhibited by 10 microM cyclosporin A, suggesting that activation of the calmodulin/calcineurin signaling pathway is required to activate the Ca(2+) transporters that sequester the increased cytosolic Ca(2+) load caused by this high rate of Ca(2+) uptake. We propose that these Ca(2+)-related alterations are attributable to a reduced metabolic flux between Glc-1-P and Glc-6-P due to a limitation of PGM enzymatic activity in the pgm2Delta strain. Consistent with this hypothesis, we found that this "metabolic bottleneck" resulted in an 8-fold increase in the Glc-1-P level compared with the wild-type strain, while the Glc-6-P and ATP levels were normal. These results suggest that Glc-1-P (or a related metabolite) may participate in the control of Ca(2+) uptake from the environment.     

Bioluminescent monitoring enables observation of intracellular events in real time without cell and tissue destruction

Secreted reporter proteins provide monitoring of intracellular events in real time without cell destruction. To create human melanoma cell lines that enables noninvasive bioluminescent monitoring of metabolic activity, a comparison of the efficiency of isoforms and mutant variants of luciferase from the Metridia longa as secreted reporter proteins in the cells of human melanoma lines Mel IL was conducted. The MLM3 deletion mutant had the highest activity in the medium of two studied isoforms and two deletion mutants of secreted M. longa luciferase during the Mel IL melanoma cell transfection. It was established that optimization of the gene structure of the selected MLM3 variant for expression in human cells increases the level of bioluminescent activity in the Mel IL cells by almost an order of magnitude. A stable Mel IL melanoma cell line with constitutive expression of the humanized hMLM3 reporter gene was obtained and characterized. The linear range of identification of living cells by the hMLM3 reporter activity was more than three orders of magnitude with a sensitivity of detection of 10 cells.

     

膜去极化与cAMP在胰岛细胞株HIT中诱导CBP片段的转录活性

为了研究 Ｃ Ｂ Ｐ在胰岛 Ｈ Ｉ Ｔ 细胞中调节基因转录的机制,将不同的 Ｃ Ｂ Ｐ片段瞬时转染到细胞中,观察其转录活性．实验表明,在胰岛 Ｈ Ｉ Ｔ 细胞中,膜去极化及 ｃ Ａ Ｍ Ｐ 均可诱导 Ｃ Ｂ Ｐ３０（ Ｃ Ｒ Ｅ Ｂ结合功能区）转录活性增强,并有协同效应． Ｐ Ｋ Ｃ对 Ｃ Ｂ Ｐ３０ 的转录活性无影响;与 Ｃ Ｒ Ｅ Ｂ有更强结合力的 Ｃ Ｂ Ｐ Ｋ Ｉ Ｘ Ｓ／ Ｂ（氨基酸序列短于 Ｃ Ｂ Ｐ３０ 的 Ｃ Ｒ Ｅ Ｂ结合功能区）其基本转录活性及膜去极化、ｃ Ａ Ｍ Ｐ诱导下的转录活性均比 Ｃ Ｂ Ｐ３０ 更强．反义 Ｃ Ｒ Ｅ Ｂ 的过度表达可降低 ｃ Ａ Ｍ Ｐ诱导的 Ｃ Ｂ Ｐ的转录活性．提示在胰岛 Ｈ Ｉ Ｔ 细胞中,膜去极化及 ｃ Ａ Ｍ Ｐ对共转录因子 Ｃ Ｂ Ｐ转录活性的调节作用通过 Ｃ Ｒ Ｅ Ｂ介导．     

Dictyostelium calcium-binding protein 4a interacts with nucleomorphin, a BRCT-domain protein that regulates nuclear number

Nucleomorphin from Dictyostelium discoideum is a nuclear calmodulin-binding protein that is a member of the BRCT-domain containing cell cycle checkpoint proteins. Two differentially expressed isoforms, NumA and NumB, share an extensive acidic domain (DEED) that when deleted produces highly multinucleated cells. We performed a yeast two-hybrid screen of a Dictyostelium cDNA library using NumA as bait. Here we show that nucleomorphin interacts with calcium-binding protein 4a (CBP4a) in a Ca(2+)-dependent manner. Further deletion analysis suggests this interaction requires residues found within the DEED domain. NumA and CBP4a mRNAs are expressed at the same stages of development. CBP4a belongs to a large family of Dictyostelium CBPs, for which no cellular or developmental functions had previously been determined. Since the interaction of CBP4a with nucleomorphin requires the DEED domain, this suggests that CBP4a may respond to Ca(2+)-signalling through modulating factors that might function in concert to regulate nuclear number.