Using faecal DNA sampling and GIS to monitor hybridization between red wolves (Canis rufus) and coyotes (Canis latrans)

The US Fish and Wildlife Service's (USFWS) Red Wolf Recovery Program recognizes hybridization with coyotes as the primary threat to red wolf recovery. Efforts to curb or stop hybridization are hampered in two ways. First, hybrid individuals are difficult to identify based solely on morphology. Second, managers need to effectively search 6000 km(2) for the presence of coyotes and hybrids. We develop a noninvasive method to screen large geographical areas for coyotes and hybrids with maternal coyote ancestry by combining mitochondrial DNA sequence analysis of faeces (scat) and geographic information system (GIS) technology. This method was implemented on the Alligator River National Wildlife Refuge (1000 km(2)) in northeastern North Carolina. A total of 956 scats were collected in the spring of 2000 and 2001 and global positioning system (GPS) coordinates were recorded. Seventy-five percent of the scats were assigned to species and five coyote/hybrid scats were detected. Placement of scat location coordinates on a map of the experimental population area revealed that four of the coyote/hybrid scats were detected within the home ranges of sterilized hybrids. The other coyote/hybrid scat indicated the presence of a previously unknown individual. We suggest this method be expanded to include more of the experimental population area and be optimized for use with nuclear markers to improve detection of hybrid and back-crossed individuals.     

Size‐assortative choice and mate availability influences hybridization between red wolves (Canis rufus) and coyotes (Canis latrans)

Anthropogenic hybridization of historically isolated taxa has become a primary conservation challenge for many imperiled species. Indeed, hybridization between red wolves (Canis rufus) and coyotes (Canis latrans) poses a significant challenge to red wolf recovery. We considered seven hypotheses to assess factors influencing hybridization between red wolves and coyotes via pair‐bonding between the two species. Because long‐term monogamy and defense of all‐purpose territories are core characteristics of both species, mate choice has long‐term consequences. Therefore, red wolves may choose similar‐sized mates to acquire partners that behave similarly to themselves in the use of space and diet. We observed multiple factors influencing breeding pair formation by red wolves and found that most wolves paired with similar‐sized conspecifics and wolves that formed congeneric pairs with nonwolves (coyotes and hybrids) were mostly female wolves, the smaller of the two sexes. Additionally, we observed that lower red wolf abundance relative to nonwolves and the absence of helpers increased the probability that wolves consorted with nonwolves. However, successful pairings between red wolves and nonwolves were associated with wolves that maintained small home ranges. Behaviors associated with territoriality are energetically demanding and behaviors (e.g., aggressive interactions, foraging, and space use) involved in maintaining territories are influenced by body size. Consequently, we propose the hypothesis that size disparities between consorting red wolves and coyotes influence positive assortative mating and may represent a reproductive barrier between the two species. We offer that it may be possible to maintain wild populations of red wolves in the presence of coyotes if management strategies increase red wolf abundance on the landscape by mitigating key threats, such as human‐caused mortality and hybridization with coyotes. Increasing red wolf abundance would likely restore selection pressures that increase mean body and home‐range sizes of red wolves and decrease hybridization rates via reduced occurrence of congeneric pairs.     

Daily activity patterns of coyotes (Canis latrans) in a tropical deciduous forest of western Mexico

We studied the activity patterns of the coyote (Canis latrans) in a tropical deciduous forest in the Mexican Pacific coast over 3 years. Fifteen coyotes (six females, nine males) were fitted with radio-collars equipped with activity sensors to determine the influence of seasonality (dry vs. wet), gender (males vs. females) and diel intervals (dusk, night, dawn, and day) on activity patterns. We found differences in activity patterns between diel intervals, but the only pair of diel intervals that showed significant differences was dawn (more active) vs. day (less active). We found no differences due to sex or season on any of the four studied diel intervals. Coyote activity patterns in this tropical forest could be responding to prey availability, human avoidance or thermoregulation.     

Historical and present distribution of coyote (Canis latrans) in Mexico and Central America

Aim Coyote (Canis latrans) distribution in Mexico and Central America has expanded recently reaching the Yucatan peninsula, Belize and Panama, probably promoted by deforestation of tropical areas. Historically, the southern distribution of coyotes prior to European settlement in America was described as reaching only as far south as central Mexico and that introduction of livestock favoured migration of coyotes to southern Mexico and Central America. However, coyote fossil records in Central America and Yucatan, as well as observational records of travellers during the sixteenth century suggest that the coyote's arrival to the region was earlier. Because of the uncertainty of past coyote distribution and the possible economic and ecological impacts due to recent range expansion, the objectives of this study were to confirm if paleontological and historical evidence support the hypothesis that the southernmost limit of coyote distribution before the arrival of European settlers was the centre of Mexico, to discuss the possible factors that have influenced historical shifts in coyote distribution, and to model the present distribution of the coyote in Mexico and Central America, determining the areas where they could invade in the near future. Location The research area comprises continental Mexico and the Central American Isthmus countries: Guatemala, Belize, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Panama. Methods The historical distribution (Pleistocene–Early Holocene, Pre‐Columbian, sixteenth to nineteenth centuries and twentieth century) was established from coyote records obtained from museum collections and specialized literature. Present coyote distribution for Mexico and Central America was modelled using the Genetic Algorithms for Rule‐set Prediction (GARP). Results Historical coyote records show that this species was distributed in southern Mexico and Central America during the Pleistocene–Early Holocene, the Pre‐Columbian period, and during the arrival of Europeans in the sixteenth century. Coyote records indicate a continuous range expansion during the twentieth century. Historical advance and regression of tropical forests in southern Mexico and Central America produced by natural and human events such as climatic changes and variation in human densities could help us understand the historical coyote distribution. The modelled present‐day coyote distribution included the north of Belize, the north of Panama, the north of the Yucatan Peninsula and a corridor on the Gulf costal plain of Campeche in Mexico. Also, the model predicted a region north of the Darien in southern Panama as appropriate for the presence of coyotes, although they have not been detected there so far. Main conclusion Coyote records in southern Mexico and Central America during the Pleistocene–Early Holocene, the Pre‐Columbian period, and early arrival of European settlers to the area indicated that coyotes were probably already present there and did not recently disperse from the north of Mexico to the south due to livestock introduction.     

Resident and transient coyotes exhibit differential patterns of movement behavior across heterogeneous landscapes in the southeastern United States

Coyotes (Canis latrans) are a highly adaptable canid species whose behavioral plasticity has allowed them to persist in a wide array of habitats throughout North America. As generalists, coyotes can alter movement patterns and change territorial strategies between residency (high site fidelity) and transiency (low site fidelity) to maximize fitness. Uncertainty remains about resident and transient coyote movement patterns and habitat use because research has reached conflicting conclusions regarding patterns of habitat use by both groups. We quantified effects of habitat on resident and transient coyote movement behavior using first passage time (FPT) analysis, which assesses recursive movement along an individual''s movement path to delineate where they exhibit area‐restricted search (ARS) behaviors relative to habitat attributes. We quantified monthly movement rates for 171 coyotes (76 residents and 53 transients) and then used estimated FPT values in generalized linear mixed models to quantify monthly habitat use for resident and transient coyotes. Transients had greater movement rates than residents across all months except January. Resident FPT values were positively correlated with agricultural land cover during fall and winter, but negatively correlated with agriculture during spring. Resident FPT values were also negatively correlated with developed habitats during May–August, deciduous land cover during June–August, and wetlands during September–January except November. FPT values of transient coyotes were positively correlated with developed areas throughout much of the year and near wetlands during July–September. Transient FPT values were negatively correlated with agriculture during all months except June and July. High FPT values (ARS behavior) of residents and transients were generally correlated with greater densities of edge habitat. Although we observed high individual variation in space use, our study found substantive differences in habitat use between residents and transients, providing further evidence that complexity and plasticity of coyote habitat use is influenced by territorial strategy.     

Interference competition between coyotes and raccoons: a test of the mesopredator release hypothesis

Some predator species appear to conform to the mesopredatorrelease hypothesis (MRH), in which larger predators help limitpopulations of smaller predators. This hypothesis has been usedto explain the possible relationship between coyotes, mesopredators,and resultant cascades involving nonpredators. However, relationshipsbetween coyotes and noncanid mesopredators are poorly understood,and predictions from the MRH have rarely been rigorously tested.We monitored sympatric raccoon and coyote populations to assess2 predictions derived from the MRH: coyote predation is an importantcause of mortality in raccoon populations or raccoons avoidareas used by coyotes. Between March 2000 and September 2001,we recorded 3553 locations for 27 radio-collared raccoons and1393 locations for 13 coyotes captured on the Max McGraw WildlifeFoundation in Illinois, USA. No raccoon mortality from coyotepredation was observed during the study, and raccoon survivalwas >0.7 each season. All raccoon 95% home ranges exhibitedoverlap with 95% coyote home ranges in each season. The meanproportion of raccoon locations within 95% coyote home rangesdid not vary by sex but did vary by season. Raccoon overlapof coyote core areas varied considerably among individuals withinseasons, ranging from 0% to 83%. However, 45% of raccoons had<10% overlap with coyote core areas, whereas only 14% ofraccoons exhibited >50% overlap. Mean overlap with core areasdid not vary by season or sex. For those raccoons with homeranges overlapping coyote core areas, mean proportion of observedraccoon locations within coyote core areas was generally greaterthan the mean proportion of random locations. Scent-stationexperiments failed to document raccoon avoidance of specificsites that had been marked with coyote urine. We did not findsupport for a mortality prediction or avoidance prediction tosupport MRH with regard to raccoons and coyotes. These resultssuggest that relationships among mammalian predators may notbe simply dictated by body size, particularly for species outsidethe Canidae.     

Integrity of mating behaviors and seasonal reproduction in coyotes (Canis latrans) following treatment with estradiol benzoate

Coyotes (Canis latrans) are seasonally monestrous and form perennial pair-bonds. Breeding is dominated by each pack's alpha male and female, and both sexes share responsibility for territory defense and pup-rearing. They are also opportunistic predators on domestic livestock and pets. But while dominant adults have been implicated as primary killers, depredation is reduced when coyotes are without pups. Contraception, therefore, may represent a non-lethal solution for conflicts between coyotes and humans. Steroid hormones successfully control fertility in some species, but have been considered contraindicated in wildlife and canids in particular; specific concerns include possible induction of aberrant behavior, or uterine and hematopoietic pathologies. Herein we describe a study examining the physiological effectiveness, health safety, and behavioral consequences following treatment of estrous coyotes with exogenous estrogen. We treated captive adult female coyotes in estrus with 0.01 mg/kg estradiol benzoate (EB), either before (n = 5) or immediately after ovulation (n = 6), then documented reproductive outcome, physiological variables and behavioral responses, during and after treatment. Pregnancy was averted in six females treated after ovulation, suggesting that appropriate timing of treatment proved crucial. A transient suppression of sexual behavior was observed, and in some cases, estrus appeared slightly lengthened. However, neither ovulation nor mating behavior was fully suppressed. Importantly, non-pregnant females (and their mates) displayed diestrous socio-sexual behavior similar to pregnant coyotes (behavioral pseudopregnancy). Furthermore, non-pregnant coyotes did not mate again until the next native breeding season, and we observed no deleterious physiological effects during diestrus or subsequent ovarian cycles.     

Effects of inbreeding on reproductive success,performance, litter size,and survival in captive red wolves (Canis rufus)

Captive‐breeding programs have been widely used in the conservation of imperiled species, but the effects of inbreeding, frequently expressed in traits related to fitness, are nearly unavoidable in small populations with few founders. Following its planned extirpation in the wild, the endangered red wolf (Canis rufus) was preserved in captivity with just 14 founders. In this study, we evaluated the captive red wolf population for relationships between inbreeding and reproductive performance and fitness. Over 30 years of managed breeding, the level of inbreeding in the captive population has increased, and litter size has declined. Inbreeding levels were lower in sire and dam wolves that reproduced than in those that did not reproduce. However, there was no difference in the inbreeding level of actual litters and predicted litters. Litter size was negatively affected by offspring and paternal levels of inbreeding, but the effect of inbreeding on offspring survival was restricted to a positive influence. There was no apparent relationship between inbreeding and method of rearing offspring. The observable effects of inbreeding in the captive red wolf population currently do not appear to be a limiting factor in the conservation of the red wolf population. Additional studies exploring the extent of the effects of inbreeding will be required as inbreeding levels increase in the captive population. Zoo Biol 29:36–49, 2010. © 2009 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Landowners’ perspectives of black‐backed jackals (Canis mesomelas) on farmlands in KwaZulu‐Natal,South Africa

Despite continued efforts to eradicate black‐backed jackals (Canis mesomelas), they are considered an abundant mesopredator on agricultural land across South Africa, resulting in ongoing human–wildlife conflict and concern for farmers and wildlife managers. We conducted a questionnaire survey and semi‐formal interviews with farmers throughout KwaZulu‐Natal, examining farmers’ livestock husbandry, land‐use changes and perspectives towards jackals as a perceived threat to livestock. Many (75%) respondents acknowledged expanding agricultural activities on their farmlands since the onset of their farming careers. However, the perception was that these changes placed little pressure on mesopredators as farmers reported frequent daily (25%) and weekly (31%) sightings of jackal, and regular predation on livestock (72%). Some landowners (31%) reported between one and five livestock losses annually and suggest that mitigation strategies to prevent livestock losses are in place. Farmers suggested the increasing intensity in agricultural practices provided a greater food source for jackals allowing them to thrive in expanding agricultural conditions and, in some circumstances, farmers admitted to possibly being a cause through poor disposal techniques for dead animals. Feedback from farmers emphasized the importance of having collaboration between farmers to control jackal predation and reduce human–wildlife conflict.     

Fine‐scale ecological and anthropogenic variables predict the habitat use and detectability of sloth bears in the Churia habitat of east Nepal

Once widespread throughout the tropical forests of the Indian Subcontinent, the sloth bears have suffered a rapid range collapse and local extirpations in the recent decades. A significant portion of their current distribution range is situated outside of the protected areas (PAs). These unprotected sloth bear populations are under tremendous human pressures, but little is known about the patterns and determinants of their occurrence in most of these regions. The situation is more prevalent in Nepal where virtually no systematic information is available for sloth bears living outside of the PAs. We undertook a spatially replicated sign survey‐based single‐season occupancy study intending to overcome this information gap for the sloth bear populations residing in the Trijuga forest of southeast Nepal. Sloth bear sign detection histories and field‐based covariates data were collected between 2 October and 3 December 2020 at the 74 randomly chosen 4‐km² grid cells. From our results, the model‐averaged site use probability (ψ ± SE) was estimated to be 0.432 ± 0.039, which is a 13% increase from the naïve estimate (0.297) not accounting for imperfect detections of sloth bear signs. The presence of termite mound and the distance to the nearest water source were the most important variables affecting the habitat use probability of sloth bears. The average site‐level detectability (p ± SE) of sloth bear signs was estimated to be 0.195 ± 0.003 and was significantly determined by the index of human disturbances. We recommend considering the importance of fine‐scale ecological and anthropogenic factors in predicting the sloth bear‐habitat relationships across their range in the Churia habitat of Nepal, and more specifically in the unprotected areas.     

Fine‐scale oceanographic drivers of reef manta ray (Mobula alfredi) visitation patterns at a feeding aggregation site

Globally, reef manta rays (Mobula alfredi) are in decline and are particularly vulnerable to exploitation and disturbance at aggregation sites. Here, passive acoustic telemetry and a suite of advanced oceanographic technologies were used for the first time to investigate the fine‐scale (5‐min) influence of oceanographic drivers on the visitation patterns of 19 tagged M. alfredi to a feeding aggregation site at Egmont Atoll in the Chagos Archipelago. Boosted regression trees indicate that tag detection probability increased with the intrusion of cold‐water bores propagating up the atoll slope through the narrow lagoon inlet during flood tide, potentially transporting zooplankton from the thermocline. Tag detection probability also increased with warmer near‐surface temperature close to low tide, with near‐surface currents flowing offshore, and with high levels of backscatter (a proxy of zooplankton biomass). These combinations of processes support the proposition that zooplankton carried from the thermocline into the lagoon during the flood may be pumped back out through the narrow inlet during an ebb tide. These conditions provide temporally limited feeding opportunities for M. alfredi, which are tied on the tides. Results also provide some evidence of the presence of Langmuir Circulation, which transports and concentrates zooplankton, and may partly explain why M. alfredi occasionally remained at the feeding location for longer than that two hours. Identification of these correlations provides unique insight into the dynamic synthesis of fine‐scale oceanographic processes which are likely to influence the foraging ecology of M. alfredi at Egmont Atoll, and elsewhere throughout their range.     

Fine‐scale movements and use of space by spotted hyaena (Crocuta crocuta) on Ongava Game Reserve,Namibia

We deployed Global Positioning System (GPS) collars on spotted hyaena, Crocuta crocuta, on Ongava Game Reserve in northern Namibia. We analysed the movement profiles recorded from three periods of fine temporal scale (15 min interval) GPS data – dry season data from a sub‐adult female (36 days) and a lactating adult female (54 days), and wet season data from the same adult female (55 days). The hyaenas both had similar daily activity patterns – at rest between 12.00 and 18.00 hours, with a peak of activity in the 2‐h period around sunrise. They exhibited one or two active periods each night, travelling up to 30 km and being active for up to 10 h. Daily rest sites were widely distributed across the reserve, typically located on elevated ground and never revisited on consecutive days. In the dry season, both hyaenas made extensive use of the reserve, plus adjacent areas in Etosha National Park (sub‐adult home range 240 km², adult home range 366 km²). The wet season data for the adult female showed a significant reduction of space used (home range 232 km²). However, their utility distributions showed a nonuniform use of space, with multiple areas of high‐density utilization located away from open terrain.     

Impacts of large mammals on movements of the pouched mouse (Saccostomus mearnsi) in central Kenya

Populations of large wild mammals are declining worldwide, while the abundance of livestock is increasing. The absence of large mammals frequently leads to increases in the abundance of small mammals such as rodents, but little is known about how the loss of large mammals affects the behaviour of small mammals. To investigate this question, we analysed long‐term data collected at the Kenya Long‐term Exclosure Experiment, which excludes different combinations of large mammals from a savannah ecosystem in central Kenya. We investigated the effects of excluding large mammals, both wild and domestic, on the movements of the pouched mouse (Saccostomus mearnsi), the most common species of small mammal in this habitat. Mice moved ~20% more in the presence of wildlife, but their movements were not significantly affected by the presence of cattle. An index of intraspecific contacts between mice was higher at higher mouse densities, and these high densities were more likely when wildlife and cattle were absent. The results suggest that the absence of large mammals led to higher densities of small mammals, which resulted in a greater probability of intraspecific contacts, despite lower average movement distances.     

Seasonal home ranges of elephants (Loxodonta africana) and their movements between Sabi Sand Reserve and Kruger National Park

We studied the seasonal home ranges and space use of three breeding herds of elephants (Loxodonta africana) for 3–5 years in an area comprising South Africa’s Sabi Sand Reserve (SSR) and Kruger National Park (KNP). Global Positioning System (GPS) transmitters were attached to the matriarchs of three herds and set to transmit a single daily location. Each herd was located in SSR 31%, 60% and 84% of the time. During the wet summer months, the herds walked longer distances and occupied larger seasonal home ranges than during the corresponding dry winter period. Core areas were centred on riverine habitats within both parks, with all three herds exhibiting closer distances to rivers and artificial water holes than would be expected if they were moving randomly. Home ranges within SSR overlapped much of the park. However, in KNP they occupied discrete areas with little overlap. Much of the movement between the two parks occurred along well‐defined corridors. This study shows that elephant herds depended upon the resources of both parks, providing an insight into their within‐ and between‐seasonal movements. This highlights the importance of ongoing co‐operation between wildlife managers from both parks when forming policy.     

Fine‐scale vertical and horizontal movements of juvenile yellowfin tuna (Thunnus albacares) associated with a subsurface fish aggregating device (FAD) off southwestern Taiwan

An increase in yellowfin tuna (Thunnus albacares) catch by danish seine fisheries around the subsurface fish aggregating devices (FADs) in southern Taiwan waters has been a concern of local government and environmental groups. However, the attraction mechanism of aggregating tunas at the subsurface FADs is still poorly understood. The objective of this study is to examine the fine‐scale vertical and horizontal movements of juvenile yellowfin tunas around a subsurface FAD. In total, 53 tunas (35–81 cm fork length) were tagged with ultrasonic telemetry tags and released at a subsurface FAD in the waters off Shiao‐Liu‐Chiu Island, southwestern Taiwan from October 2008 to December 2009. These tunas stayed at the subsurface FAD for up to 31 days, with daytime vertical movement depths averaging 60–80 m at a maximum depth of 250 m. At night, the tuna gathered at a shallow depth of 40 m. The mean depth of vertical movement in the daytime is significantly different from that of the nighttime (P < 0.05). The maximum detectable distance of horizontal movement was 1.6 km, with 80% of the long horizontal movements occurring in the daytime. It is likely that the purpose of these vertical and horizontal movements was for feeding or avoiding predators. Moreover, the tagged tunas did not depart from the subsurface FAD simultaneously, suggesting distinct behaviors in their movements.     

Jaw muscle (EMG) activity and amplitude scaling of jaw movements during eating in pigeon (Columba livia)

During each phase of the pigeon's eating sequence, jaw opening amplitude (gape) is adjusted to the size of the food object; first prior to contact (Grasping), again in positioning the food (Stationing), and finally, during its movement through the oral cavity (Intraoral Transport). Part I of this study examined jaw movement kinematics during ingestion of different size food pellets to determine the relative contribution of velocity and rise time variables. Part II specified the muscle activity patterns mediating each phase of the eating sequence, and determined how these patterns are modulated to produce adjustments of gape size.The relative contribution of velocity and rise time variables to the control of gape differs in each phase of the eating sequence. However, for any pellet size, variations in opening rise time may function in a compensatory manner to minimize gape undershooting. Each phase of the eating sequence is mediated by a characteristic muscle activity pattern. The adjustment of gape size to pellet size involves systematic modulation of this pattern, and the parameters modulated differ in the different phases in a manner which may reflect the functional requirements of each phase.Abbreviations AMEM adductor mandibulae externus muscle - DM depressor mandibulae muscle - EMG electromyographic - PDC/PDR pterygoideus muscle, pars dorsalis caudalis and rostralis - PQP protractor quadrati et pterygoidei muscle - PTP pseudotemporalis profundus muscle - PVL/PVM pterygoideus ventralis muscle, pars lateralis and medialis     

Social environment and genetics underlie body site‐specific microbiomes of Yellowstone National Park gray wolves (Canis lupus)

The host‐associated microbiome is an important player in the ecology and evolution of species. Despite growing interest in the medical, veterinary, and conservation communities, there remain numerous questions about the primary factors underlying microbiota, particularly in wildlife. We bridged this knowledge gap by leveraging microbial, genetic, and observational data collected in a wild, pedigreed population of gray wolves (Canis lupus) inhabiting Yellowstone National Park. We characterized body site‐specific microbes across six haired and mucosal body sites (and two fecal samples) using 16S rRNA amplicon sequencing. At the phylum level, we found that the microbiome of gray wolves primarily consists of Actinobacteria, Bacteroidetes, Firmicutes, Fusobacteria, and Proteobacteria, consistent with previous studies within Mammalia and Canidae. At the genus level, we documented body site‐specific microbiota with functions relevant to microenvironment and local physiological processes. We additionally employed observational and RAD sequencing data to examine genetic, demographic, and environmental correlates of skin and gut microbiota. We surveyed individuals across several levels of pedigree relationships, generations, and social groups, and found that social environment (i.e., pack) and genetic relatedness were two primary factors associated with microbial community composition to differing degrees between body sites. We additionally reported body condition and coat color as secondary factors underlying gut and skin microbiomes, respectively. We concluded that gray wolf microbiota resemble similar host species, differ between body sites, and are shaped by numerous endogenous and exogenous factors. These results provide baseline information for this long‐term study population and yield important insights into the evolutionary history, ecology, and conservation of wild wolves and their associated microbes.     

Potential of a no‐take marine reserve to protect home ranges of anadromous brown trout (Salmo trutta)

The extent to which no‐take marine reserves can benefit anadromous species requires examination. Here, we used acoustic telemetry to investigate the spatial behavior of anadromous brown trout (sea trout, Salmo trutta) in relation to a small marine reserve (~1.5 km²) located inside a fjord on the Norwegian Skagerrak coast. On average, sea trout spent 42.3 % (±5.0% SE) of their time in the fjord within the reserve, a proportion similar to the area of the reserve relative to that of the fjord. On average, sea trout tagged inside the reserve received the most protection, although the level of protection decreased marginally with increasing home range size. Furthermore, individuals tagged outside the reserve received more protection with increasing home range size, potentially opposing selection toward smaller home range sizes inflicted on fish residing within reserves, or through selective fishing methods like angling. Monthly sea trout home ranges in the marine environment were on average smaller than the reserve, with a mean of 0.430 (±0.0265 SE) km². Hence, the reserve is large enough to protect the full home range of some individuals residing in the reserve. Synthesis and applications: In general, the reserve protects sea trout to a varying degree depending on their individual behavior. These findings highlight evolutionary implications of spatial protection and can guide managers in the design of marine reserves and networks that preserve variation in target species' home range size and movement behavior.