植物隐花色素结构与功能研究进展

隐花色素是植物感受外界环境变化的重要光受体之一,对蓝光和近紫外线非常敏感.近年来随着研究的逐步深入,已知其广泛存在于动植物中.隐花色素为黄素类蛋白,在蓝光和近紫外线下能够抑制植物胚轴、胚芽鞘等伸长,调控植物开花时间;而且对生物钟及气孔开放也起到调节作用,近来还发现隐花色素在感知磁场、细胞凋亡等方面有调节作用.本文综述了隐花色素的分子结构、它所包含的结构域和相应功能以及植物中隐花色素基因家族的成员组成与进化关系,重点在分子水平上介绍了隐花色素的生理功能与作用机制.     

光受体介导信号转导调控植物开花研究进展

光照是影响植物生长发育的重要环境因子, 开花是高等植物生活史上最重要的事件。植物通过光受体感知外界环境中的光照变化, 激活一系列信号转导过程从而适时开花。该文介绍了高等植物光受体的种类、结构特征和生理功能的研究进展, 并系统阐述了红光/远红光受体光敏色素、蓝光受体隐花色素以及FKF1/ZTL/LKP2等介导光信号调控植物开花的分子机制, 包括光受体对CO转录及转录后水平调控和对FT转录水平的调控等。此外, 还介绍了光受体整合光信号与温度和赤霉素等信号调控植物开花的研究进展, 并展望了未来的研究方向。     

花色形成与花生长的调控

结合笔者的研究结果,对光、糖和GAs在花生长及花色形成中的作用和可能的调节机制进行了综述。光通过光受体介导的高辐照度反应(HIR)和光合作用调控花生长及花色素苷合成;糖作为碳源和渗透调节因子,影响花瓣细胞的生长及花色素苷积累,依赖己糖激酶的信号途径可能在糖的调控中起作用;GAs通过调节特异基因的转录间接地诱导花色素苷合成途径中结构基因的表达。     

金针菇光受体隐花色素Ffcry基因的鉴定及其表达模式

光照对金针菇生长发育及形态建成有重要作用。光受体隐花色素(cryptochrome)是响应光信号的主要受体之一。本研究首先鉴定了黄色金针菇FL19隐花色素基因Ffcry的基因和蛋白结构,并对其启动子中的顺式作用元件进行预测,其中包含有3个光响应元件。进一步对Ffcry基因在不同光照条件下的表达模式进行了系统研究,结果显示Ffcry基因在蓝光下表达量显著高于黑暗以及其他波长的光照条件;蓝光强度则在光通量为10 μmol/(m²·s)时Ffcry表达量最高,且Ffcry在蓝光照射20 min后逐渐上调表达,在180 min后表达量趋于稳定。最后,检测金针菇子实体不同发育时期发现,Ffcry基因在幼菇期菌盖中表达量最高,其次是伸长期菌盖和成熟期菌盖。该研究为后续研究隐花色素的分子功能以及深入揭示金针菇的光形态建成奠定了基础。     

隐花色素——生物磁感应蛋白

地磁场影响着自然界的生命活动,候鸟、果蝇等就利用地磁场进行导航迁徙．研究表明,鸟类的视网膜中存在一种蛋白名为隐花色素,作为最可能的磁感应分子和光受体. 该蛋白能够在光照条件下,产生自由基对,进行光化学转换．人体内也含有隐花色素蛋白,该蛋白也具有磁感应潜能．本文从地磁感应现象入手,结合最新的研究进展,重点介绍了隐花色素的结构、分类、光反应机制,并且根据光依赖的自由基假说就鸟类感应地磁场这一现象进行了简要阐述,同时对隐花色素研究前景进行了探讨．     

蓝光和蔗糖对拟南芥花色素苷积累和CHS基因表达的影响

以在20μmol m^-2s^-1白光下生长13d的拟南芥(Arabidopsis thaliana,Landsbcrg生态型)幼苗为材料,采用测定叶片花色素苷含量和Northern blot方法,研究蓝光与蔗糖在诱导植物花色素苷积累及相关基因表达中的作用。结果表明：蓝光处理后,叶片花色素苷积累随光强和照光时间的延长而增加,突变体hy4叶片的花色素苷含量明显低于野生型(WT),说明隐花色素1(cry1)是蓝光诱导花色素苷积累的主要光受体：WT中苯基苯乙烯酮合酶基因(CHS)的表达受蓝光诱导,处理4h即有表达,8h达到最高,之后逐渐下降;蓝光不能诱导突变体hy4中CHS基因的表达,说明cry1介导蓝光诱导CHS基因的表达。培养基中不含蔗糖,削弱了蓝光诱导的拟南芥叶片花色素苷的积累,CHS基因表达也受到抑制。蔗糖不仅作为碳源参与蓝光诱导的花色素苷积累,还可能作为信号分子参与蓝光诱导的CHS表达。     

隐光敏素及其信号传导研究进展

隐光敏素是一种对植物生长发育起调节作用的与光敏素功能相似的蓝光受体。90’s后特别是近年来对植物隐光敏素进行了较深入的研究,已知隐光敏素存在于植物,也存在于动物中。隐光敏素在植物种子萌发中的去黄化作用、光周期诱导开花、调节昼夜节律性等方面起重要作用;本文介绍了隐光敏素基因及其蛋白质的特征特性,包括隐光敏素的结构特征,在植物中的分布、在细胞中定位及其基因表达情况; 在其基础上,概述了隐光敏素调节植物光形态建成和动、植物昼夜节律性过程中所起的作用,通过分析隐光敏素及其与互作蛋白的关系, 初步阐述了隐光敏素如何经过信号传导通道上的蛋白而起调节植物生命活动的功能。指出深入研究隐光敏素及其信号传导以阐明植物的光形态建成具有重大理论和实践意义。     

光受体UVR8对UV-B响应机制研究进展

来自太阳光谱中的UV-B辐射被认为是一种重要的环境信号,可以被植物感受并诱导植物调整自身生长和发育状态以适应环境。人们对植物中光敏色素、隐花色素和蓝光受体向光素的研究已非常深入,但对植物响应UV-B的机制仅在最近才取得一些突破性进展。这些研究发现,植物中存在着UV-B受体UVR8(UV Resistance Locus 8)。目前认为,UVR8二聚体感应UV-B后瞬间解聚为单体,并与E3泛素连接酶COP1(constitutively photomorphogenic 1)相互作用,从而激活UV-B响应基因的表达。该文从UVR8的发现、UVR8的结构和感受UV-B机制、UVR8二聚体重新形成以及UV-B信号传导与可见光信号传导途径间的差异等方面综述了关于UV-B受体UVR8的最新研究成果。     

拟南芥和琴叶拟南芥中MADS-box基因的比较进化分析

MADS-box基因编码一类转录因子。在被子植物中,MADS-box基因对于营养生长和生殖发育都有重要的调控作用,是植物体(特别是花序、花和果实)的正常发育所不可或缺的。为了理解近缘物种在遗传基础上的异同,我们对拟南芥(Arabidopsis thaliana)和琴叶拟南芥(A.lyrata)基因组中MADS-box基因的拷贝数目和进化式样进行了比较分析。通过搜索公共数据库,我们在拟南芥和琴叶拟南芥中分别鉴定出了106和115个基因。系统发育分析的结果表明,这些基因属于I型和II型MADS-box基因。在两个物种分化之后,II型基因的拷贝数目变化不大,I型基因则经历了多次独立的基因丢失和获得事件。通过比较这些基因在染色体上的排列,我们不但鉴定出了存在微共线性的基因组区段,而且发现新基因产生的主要机制是串联重复和散在重复。分子进化的研究进一步表明,I型和II型基因在进化式样上存在着显著差异:II型基因在进化中一般都受到了较强的选择压力,而I型基因大多受到的选择压力较弱。本研究将为深入理解近缘物种在基因和基因组层面上的异同、探讨物种分化和生物多样性形成的机制等问题提供新思路。     

隐花色素蛋白光依赖磁感应机制研究进展

隐花色素(Cryptochrome,CRY)蛋白是一种对蓝光敏感的蛋白,在植物中主要调节生长及发育,是果蝇等昆虫光信号的接收者,在哺乳动物中扮演调节生物钟的角色。CRY蛋白作为磁光信号感受器受到广泛关注,其结构中的保守的色氨酸三联体与辅因子黄素腺嘌呤二核苷酸(flavin adenine dinucleotide,FAD)间自由基电子对是CRY蛋白具有光依赖的磁感应功能的关键因素。该文对CRY蛋白的分类及结构特征、光依赖磁感应机制的研究进展进行了综述,并对目前CRY蛋白研究中存在的问题及未来研究方向进行了展望。     

Magnetic intensity affects cryptochrome-dependent responses in Arabidopsis thaliana

Cryptochromes are blue-light absorbing photoreceptors found in many organisms where they have been involved in numerous growth, developmental, and circadian responses. In Arabidopsis thaliana, two cryptochromes, CRY1 and CRY2, mediate several blue-light-dependent responses including hypocotyl growth inhibition. Our study shows that an increase in the intensity of the ambient magnetic field from 33–44 to 500 μT enhanced growth inhibition in A. thaliana under blue light, when cryptochromes are the mediating photoreceptor, but not under red light when the mediating receptors are phytochromes, or in total darkness. Hypocotyl growth of Arabidopsis mutants lacking cryptochromes was unaffected by the increase in magnetic intensity. Additional cryptochrome-dependent responses, such as blue-light-dependent anthocyanin accumulation and blue-light-dependent degradation of CRY2 protein, were also enhanced at the higher magnetic intensity. These findings show that higher plants are sensitive to the magnetic field in responses that are linked to cryptochrome-dependent signaling pathways. Because cryptochromes form radical pairs after photoexcitation, our results can best be explained by the radical-pair model. Recent evidence indicates that the magnetic compass of birds involves a radical pair mechanism, and cryptochrome is a likely candidate for the avian magnetoreception molecule. Our findings thus suggest intriguing parallels in magnetoreception of animals and plants that appear to be based on common physical properties of photoexcited cryptochromes.     

Shedding light on vertebrate magnetoreception

We review the challenges and recent progress in elucidating the physiological basis of animal magnetoreception. Behavioral and theoretical studies suggest a link between photoreception and magnetoreception in some animals. Neurophysiological studies have the potential to prove this link and identify the location of and the mechanism underlying the magnetoreception system.     

Acuity of a Cryptochrome and Vision-Based Magnetoreception System in Birds

The magnetic compass of birds is embedded in the visual system and it has been hypothesized that the primary sensory mechanism is based on a radical pair reaction. Previous models of magnetoreception have assumed that the radical pair-forming molecules are rigidly fixed in space, and this assumption has been a major objection to the suggested hypothesis. In this article, we investigate theoretically how much disorder is permitted for the radical pair-forming, protein-based magnetic compass in the eye to remain functional. Our study shows that only one rotational degree of freedom of the radical pair-forming protein needs to be partially constrained, while the other two rotational degrees of freedom do not impact the magnetoreceptive properties of the protein. The result implies that any membrane-associated protein is sufficiently restricted in its motion to function as a radical pair-based magnetoreceptor. We relate our theoretical findings to the cryptochromes, currently considered the likeliest candidate to furnish radical pair-based magnetoreception.     

Localisation of the Putative Magnetoreceptive Protein Cryptochrome 1b in the Retinae of Migratory Birds and Homing Pigeons

Cryptochromes are ubiquitously expressed in various animal tissues including the retina. Some cryptochromes are involved in regulating circadian activity. Cryptochrome proteins have also been suggested to mediate the primary mechanism in light-dependent magnetic compass orientation in birds. Cryptochrome 1b (Cry1b) exhibits a unique carboxy terminus exclusively found in birds so far, which might be indicative for a specialised function. Cryptochrome 1a (Cry1a) is so far the only cryptochrome protein that has been localised to specific cell types within the retina of migratory birds. Here we show that Cry1b, an alternative splice variant of Cry1a, is also expressed in the retina of migratory birds, but it is primarily located in other cell types than Cry1a. This could suggest different functions for the two splice products. Using diagnostic bird-specific antibodies (that allow for a precise discrimination between both proteins), we show that Cry1b protein is found in the retinae of migratory European robins (Erithacus rubecula), migratory Northern Wheatears (Oenanthe oenanthe) and pigeons (Columba livia). In all three species, retinal Cry1b is localised in cell types which have been discussed as potentially well suited locations for magnetoreception: Cry1b is observed in the cytosol of ganglion cells, displaced ganglion cells, and in photoreceptor inner segments. The cytosolic rather than nucleic location of Cry1b in the retina reported here speaks against a circadian clock regulatory function of Cry1b and it allows for the possible involvement of Cry1b in a radical-pair-based magnetoreception mechanism.     

The cryptochromes

Cryptochromes are photoreceptors that regulate entrainment by light of the circadian clock in plants and animals. They also act as integral parts of the central circadian oscillator in animal brains and as receptors controlling photomorphogenesis in response to blue or ultraviolet (UV-A) light in plants. Cryptochromes are probably the evolutionary descendents of DNA photolyases, which are light-activated DNA-repair enzymes, and are classified into three groups - plant cryptochromes, animal cryptochromes, and CRY-DASH proteins. Cryptochromes and photolyases have similar three-dimensional structures, characterized by an α/β domain and a helical domain. The structure also includes a chromophore, flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD). The FAD-access cavity of the helical domain is the catalytic site of photolyases, and it is predicted also to be important in the mechanism of cryptochromes.     

Learned and spontaneous magnetosensitive behaviour in the Roborovski hamster (Phodopus roborovskii)

Sensing the geomagnetic field, called magnetoreception, might be a helpful tool for an animal to orientate and navigate in its environment. Although several rodent species are known to be magnetosensitive, detailed insights into this sensory ability are rare and the underlying mechanism in mammals is still unknown. The magnetic sense of the Djungarian hamster (Phodopus sungorus) expresses a learned behavioural pattern. Here, we report evidence for magnetoreception based on learned cues as well as spontaneous magnetosensitive behaviour in a closely related species, the Roborovski hamster (Phodopus roborovskii), for the first time. The hamsters learned to build their nests in specific magnetic directions (nest‐building assay) and spent spontaneously more time exploring a magnet compared to a sham (magnetic object assay). Furthermore, an influence of weak radio frequency magnetic fields was observed and is discussed with respect to magnetoreception mechanisms.     

Human and Drosophila cryptochromes are light activated by flavin photoreduction in living cells

Cryptochromes are a class of flavoprotein blue-light signaling receptors found in plants, animals, and humans that control plant development and the entrainment of circadian rhythms. In plant cryptochromes, light activation is proposed to result from photoreduction of a protein-bound flavin chromophore through intramolecular electron transfer. However, although similar in structure to plant cryptochromes, the light-response mechanism of animal cryptochromes remains entirely unknown. To complicate matters further, there is currently a debate on whether mammalian cryptochromes respond to light at all or are instead activated by non-light-dependent mechanisms. To resolve these questions, we have expressed both human and Drosophila cryptochrome proteins to high levels in living Sf21 insect cells using a baculovirus-derived expression system. Intact cells are irradiated with blue light, and the resulting cryptochrome photoconversion is monitored by fluorescence and electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopic techniques. We demonstrate that light induces a change in the redox state of flavin bound to the receptor in both human and Drosophila cryptochromes. Photoreduction from oxidized flavin and subsequent accumulation of a semiquinone intermediate signaling state occurs by a conserved mechanism that has been previously identified for plant cryptochromes. These results provide the first evidence of how animal-type cryptochromes are activated by light in living cells. Furthermore, human cryptochrome is also shown to undergo this light response. Therefore, human cryptochromes in exposed peripheral and/or visual tissues may have novel light-sensing roles that remain to be elucidated.     

Magnetoreception in plants

This article reviews phenomena of magnetoreception in plants and provides a survey of the relevant literature over the past 80 years. Plants react in a multitude of ways to geomagnetic fields—strong continuous fields as well as alternating magnetic fields. In the past, physiological investigations were pursued in a somewhat unsystematic manner and no biological advantage of any magnetoresponse is immediately obvious. As a result, most studies remain largely on a phenomenological level and are in general characterised by a lack of mechanistic insight, despite the fact that physics provides several theories that serve as paradigms for magnetoreception. Beside ferrimagnetism, which is well proved for bacterial magnetotaxis and for some cases of animal navigation, two further mechanisms for magnetoreception are currently receiving major attention: (1) the radical-pair mechanism consisting of the modulation of singlet–triplet interconversion rates of a radical pair by weak magnetic fields, and (2) the ion cyclotron resonance mechanism. The latter mechanism centres around the fact that ions should circulate in a plane perpendicular to an external magnetic field with their Lamor frequencies, which can interfere with an alternating electromagnetic field. Both mechanisms provide a theoretical framework for future model-guided investigations in the realm of plant magnetoreception.