The welfare of adult pigs: The effects of five housing treatments on behaviour,plasma corticosteroids and injuries

The effects of 5 housing treatments (tethers, pairs, or a group indoors, in a yard or in a paddock) on the behaviour, physiology (stress physiology and blood metabolites), health (injury status) and production (food eaten and oestrous expression) of 30 non-pregnant adult female pigs were determined at regular intervals over 12 months. Pigs housed in pairs exhibited a chronic stress response; they had the highest free corticosteroid levels “at rest”, a disrupted diurnal rhythm of plasma corticosteroids and a slower corticosteroid response to, and recovery from, transport. Behaviourally, these pigs spent more time lying alone than pigs in other treatments, and there was a significant regression between lying alone behaviour and free corticosteroid levels, suggesting this behaviour may be a useful indicator of welfare status. The group of 6 pigs housed indoors consistently showed the lowest total and free corticosteroid levels during the entire experiment, and also the least lying alone behaviour; however, these responses may have been influenced by their similar rearing and experimental environment. While the occurrence of inappropriate behaviours such as champing, biting and excessive drinking was generally low, it was higher in pigs housed indoors, particularly the tether and pair treatments, suggesting mild frustation in these latter 2 treatments.A comparison of the two most contrasting environments (tethers and paddock treatments) showed no clear welfare advantage in housing non-pregnant adult pigs in a more extensive environment.     

Effects of social environment on welfare status and sexual behaviour of female pigs. I. Effects of group size

This study examined the effects of housing 24 adult female pigs in groups of 2, 4 or 8 with a space allowance of 1.4 m² per pig on welfare status, as indicated by plasma free-corticosteroid concentrations and behaviour patterns, and sexual behaviour. Housing gilts in pairs resulted in an increase in free corticosteroid concentrations(measured 11 and 84 days after the start of the treatments) and an increase in the number of observations of lying behaviour without physical contact with another pig (recorded 21 days after entering the treatment) compared to housing in groups of 4 or 8. Overall mean free corticosteroid concentrations (±S.E.) were 3.1 ± 0.29, 2.3 ± 0.26 and 1.9 ± 0.12 ng ml⁻¹, and the mean numbers of observations of lying-alone behaviour (out of a total of 88 observations) were 6.4, 3.6 and 1.9 for gilts housed in groups of 2, 4 or 8, respectively. Although there were no differences between treatments in agonistic behaviour around the time of feeding, these data suggest there are undefined social stressors in pigs housed in pairs. Housing treatment had no significant effects on sexual behaviour. However, the mating rate was low in all treatments, possibly due to a sub-optimal space allowance.     

The influence of handling by humans on the behaviour,reproduction and corticosteroids of male and female pigs

The influence of three handling treatments on the behaviour, reproduction and free corticosteroid concentrations was studied in 15 male and 30 female pigs. Two handling treatments, considered as pleasant and unpleasant, were imposed for 5 min, three times per week from 11 weeks of age. The third handling treatment involved minimal contact with humans from 11 weeks of age. In a 3-min test at 18 weeks, pigs in the pleasant treatment were quicker (P<0.01) to enter an area within 0.5 m of the experimenter and had more interactions (P<0.05) with the experimenter than pigs in the unpleasant and minimal treatments. Gilts in the unpleasant treatment had a lower (P<0.05) pregnancy rate at the second oestrus when mated to non-experimental boars than gilts in the pleasant treatment (33.3 and 87.5%, respectively). Boars in the unpleasant treatment had smaller (P<0.05) testicles at 23 weeks of age and attained a coordinated mating response at a later age (P<0.05) than boars in the pleasant treatment (53.2 and 63.3 cm², and 192 and 161 days, respectively). In addition, pigs in the unpleasant treatment had higher (P<0.05) free corticosteroid concentrations in the absence of humans at 20 weeks (gilts) and 27 weeks (boars) than pigs in the pleasant treatment (boars and gilts combined, 2.4 and 1.7 ng ml⁻¹, respectively). For many of the reproductive parameters, the effect of the minimal handling treatment was intermediate to that of the other two treatments. It was concluded that the unpleasant handling treatment resulted in a chronic stress response, with consequent adverse effects on reproduction.     

Seasonal changes in the concentration of estrogens and testosterone in the plasma of the stallion

A blood sample was taken from each of 15 stallions at monthly intervals for 14 consecutive months. Plasma concentrations of estrogens and testosterone were measured by radioimmunoassay methods. Estrogens in peripheral blood were present in much higher amounts than testosterone and were principally in a water-soluble, solvolyzable form (> 98%). The major component in the solvolyzed extracts behaved chromatographically as estrone. The mean plasma level (± S.E.) of estrogens averaged across months was 52.9 ± 4.5 ng ml^?1. Individual stallions showed considerable month-to-month variation; for example, single monthly samples ranged from 29.5 to 160.6 ng ml^?1 for the stallion with the highest single value.The highest mean monthly concentration was 69 ± ng ml^?1 in May, and plasma levels were < 40 ng ml^?1 during November and December. For the 11 Thoroughbred stallions in the study, the mean concentrations of estrogens were 73 ± 5.8 ng ml^?1 for May to July and 45 ± 4.1 ng ml^?1 for November to January (P > 0.001).The mean monthly concentrations (± S.E.) of testosterone ranged from 0.22 ± 0.05 to 0.90 ± 0.14 ng ml^?1, and individual samples ranged from < 0.02 to 2.8 ng ml^?1 of plasma. While the highest mean level of testosterone was seen in September, there was a significant difference (P < 0.01) between the values in the breeding season (May–July, 0.73 ± 0.07 ng ml^?1) and the non-breeding season (November–January, 0.38 ± 0.08 ng ml^?1). No marked seasonal changes were observed, however, in testosterone levels in several stallions. It was concluded that plasma estrogen levels may provide a more sensitive index of endocrine function of the testes in the stallion.     

The effects of genotype on physiological and behavioural responses related to the welfare of pregnant pigs

Plasma free-corticosteroid concentrations, aggressive behaviour and levels of motivation to socially interact and explore a novel arena were observed in an experiment to examine whether differences previously observed between pigs in neck-tethers and groups are shown by pigs of different genotypes. Thirty-two pregnant gilts of 2 genotypes were housed in either tether stalls or groups. The 2 genotypes were mainly Large White×Landrace stock, but one had been intensively selected on the basis of growth performance.

Genotypic differences had previously been observed in protein and energy metabolism, and the present experiment also showed differences in their behaviour (increased activity and a decreased motivation to socially interact in the intensively selected genotype) and free-corticosteroid concentrations (40% lower in the intensively selected genotype). In spite of these differences, the behavioural and physiological responses to housing treatments were similar. In tether stalls, pigs of both genotypes had a higher frequency of retaliation and a lower frequency of withdrawal in response to aggressive interactions than group-housed pigs. There were 50 and 56% increases in free-corticosteroid concentrations in response to tether housing in the 2 genotypes, providing evidence of a chronic stress response of a magnitude sufficient to suggest a risk to welfare in the design of tether stall used in this experiment.     

Mitigating stress effects during transportation of matrinxã (Brycon amazonicus Günther, 1869; Characidae) through the application of calcium sulfate

This study verified the effects of CaSO₄ on physiological responses of the tropical fish matrinxãBrycon amazonicus (200.2 ± 51.1 g) in water containing CaSO₄ after a 4‐h transportation at concentrations of: 0, 75, 150, and 300 mg L^?1. Blood samples were collected prior to transportation (initial levels), immediately after packaging, at arrival, and 24 h and 96 h after transportation (recovery). Cortisol levels increased after packaging (118.2 ± 14.2 ng ml^?1), and decreased slightly after transportation in water containing CaSO₄ (106.8 ± 14.1), but remained higher than initial levels (21.0 ± 2.6 ng ml^?1). Fish kept at 150 mg L^?1 CaSO₄ reached the pre‐transportation levels at 24 h of recovery. Blood glucose increased after transportation in all treatments (8.2 ± 0.2 mmol L^?1) and declined after full recovery to values below initial levels (4.8 ± 0.1 mmol L^?1). Chloride levels did not change in CaSO₄ treatments; serum sodium concentrations decreased after packaging and after transportation. Serum calcium levels did not differ among treatments, but decreased after packaging and increased at 96 h of recovery. Hematocrit and the number of red blood cells were higher in all treatments after packaging and arrival, except in fish exposed to 300 mg L^?1 CaSO₄. Mean corpuscular volume increased in 75 mg L^?1 CaSO₄, which reached the higher VCM after transportation. Hemoglobin levels increased only after transportation, regardless of calcium sulfate levels. Handling before transportation and transportation itself were both stressful to fish; calcium sulfate at concentrations tested in the present work had a moderate influence in the reduction of stress responses.     

Preparturient changes in plasma concentrations of estrone,estradiol-17β and estradiol-17α in the fetal calf: Effects of dexamethasone infusion

The concentrations of total estrogens in fetal calf plasma were determined during a 6–10 day period immediately before delivery. Comparison was made between levels found in untreated calves and calves infused with dexamethasone at the rate of 0.1, 1.0 and 10 mg/24 hours. In untreated calves the plasma estrone, estradiol-17β and estradiol-17α levels remained relatively constant at 38 ± 7 ng ml^?1 (mean ± SEM n = 3), 46 ± 6 ng ml^?1 and 29 ± 5 ng ml^?1 respectively. Infusion with dexamethasone at 0.1 mg/24 hr (3 calves) and 1.0 mg/24 hr (3 calves) was without dramatic effect on plasma estrogen levels. However, in one fetus infused with 10.0 mg/24 hr the dexamethasone treatment may have caused a transitory rise in the levels of all estrogens examined.     

Group housing during gestation affects the behaviour of sows and the physiological indices of offspring at weaning

To compare the behaviour of sows and the physiological indices of their offspring in stall and group-housing systems, 28 sows were randomly distributed into two systems with 16 sows in stalls, and the other 12 sows were divided into three groups with four sows per pen. The area per sow in stalls and groups was 1.2 and 2.5 m², respectively. Back fat depth of the sow was measured. Salivary cortisol concentration of the sows, colostrum composition and piglets’ serum biochemical indicators were evaluated. The behaviour of the sows, including agonistic behaviour, non-agonistic social behaviour, stereotypical behaviour and other behaviours at weeks 2, 9 and 14 of pregnancy were analysed. The results showed no differences in the back fat depth of sows. Colostrum protein, triglyceride, triiodothyronine, thyroxine and prolactin concentrations in the whey also demonstrated no significant differences between the two housing systems. Salivary cortisol concentration was significantly higher in the sows housed in groups than the sows in stalls. The concentrations of serum total cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol were significantly higher in the offspring of sows housed in groups (P=0.006 and 0.005, respectively). The GLM procedure for repeated measures analysis showed the frequency of drinking, and non-agonistic social behaviour was significantly higher in the sows housed in groups than the sows in stalls; yet the frequency of agonistic and sham chewing demonstrated the opposite direction. The duration of standing was significantly longer in the sows housed in groups, but the sitting and stereotypical behaviour duration were significantly shorter compared with the sows in stalls. These results indicated that group housing has no obvious influence on the colostrum composition of sows; however, it was better for sows to express their non-agonistic social behaviour and reduce the frequency of agonistic behaviour and stereotypical behaviour. Meanwhile, group housing during gestation significantly increased serum total cholesterol and LDL cholesterol of offspring.     

Cotinine levels and self-reported smoking status in patients attending a bronchoscopy clinic

The reliability of self-reported smoking behaviour can vary and may result in bias if errors in misclassification vary with outcome. We examined whether self-report was an accurate measure of current smoking status in patients with malignant or non-malignant respiratory disease. Smoking behaviour was assessed by self-report and by analysis of whole blood for cotinine, a biomarker of exposure to cigarette smoke, in 166 patients attending a bronchoscopy clinic. Cotinine levels ranged from 2.5 to &gt;400 ng ml^?1 blood and were higher in self-reported current smokers (173±123 ng ml^?1) than in never smokers (3.7±8.7 ng ml^?1) or ex-smokers (20.5±49.0 ng ml^?1). Cotinine levels in self-reported current smokers increased with the numbers of cigarettes smoked (p=0.06), and levels in smokers and ex-smokers decreased with the reported length of time since the last cigarette (p=0.001). Using a cotinine level of 20 ng ml^?1 and self-report as the gold standard, the sensitivity and specificity for defining current smoking status were 90.2% and 82.4%, respectively. Out of a total of 125 self-reported current non-smokers, 23 (18.4%) had cotinine levels greater than 20 ng ml^?1. Smoking prevalence was significantly underestimated by self-report (24.7%) when compared with that defined using blood cotinine levels (36.1%: p&lt;0.001). Misclassification of current smoking status was particularly high in ex-smokers, in patients without malignant respiratory disease, in men, and in those below the median age. Such differential misclassification may result in bias in studies examining associations between current smoking habits and disease risk.     

Effects of administration of somatostatin-14 and immunoneutralization of somatostatin on endocrine and growth responses in rainbow trout

Injection of somatostatin‐14 (SS‐14) at 5 ng g^?1 body mass (BM) into rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss decreased (P < 0·05, cubic, r² = 0·54) levels of growth hormone (GH) (1·5 ± 0·9 ng ml^?1v. 6·6 ± 0·6 ng ml^?1) over time when compared to controls. Somatostatin‐14 at 50 ng g^?1 BM also decreased (P = 0·064, quadratic; r² = 0·30) levels of GH (3·6 ± 2·1 ng ml^?1v. 6·6 ± 0·6 ng ml^?1) over time compared to controls. In a second study, passive immunization against SS‐14 (1 : 25 dose) increased (P = 0·10, cubic, r² = 0·12) levels of GH (11·0 ± 4·8 ng ml^?1v. 5·2 ± 1·4 ng ml^?1) over time. Passively immunizing against SS‐14 (1 : 50 dose) increased (P < 0·05, cubic, r² = 0·10) levels of GH (8·2 ± 2·3 ng ml^?1v. 5·2 ± 1·4 ng ml^?1) over time compared to controls. Overall, in the active immunization study there was no difference (P > 0·10) in specific growth rate (G) or feed conversion ratio (FCR) between the three treatment groups during the 9 weeks of the study. Only four of the fish immunized against SS‐14, however, developed antibody titres against SS. Compared to controls, these fish exhibited a G of 0·89 ± 0·09 v. 0·56 ± 0·09% per 3 weeks and FCR of 0·80 ± 0·04 v. 1·20 ± 0·05 g g^?1. In SS‐14 immunized fish, levels of GH decreased (P < 0·05) by day 63 while levels of insulin like growth factor‐I (IGF‐I) increased (P < 0·05) by day 42 and 63. These results indicate the hypothalamic hormone SS‐14 regulates GH secretion similarly in rainbow trout as it does in mammals. Active immunization against SS‐14 could improve growth performance in rainbow trout but enhanced G and FCR is dependent upon generation of antibody titres.     

A novel spectrofluorimetric method for determination of imatinib in pure,pharmaceutical preparation,human plasma,and human urine

The following paper represents a simple, highly sensitive, responsive validated and developed spectrofluorimetric method for estimation of imatinib (IMB) in its pure, commercial preparation, human urine and human blood plasma. The calibration curve was in the range 4–900 ng ml^?1 for pure form and urine and 8–900 ng ml^?1 for plasma in a medium contains carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) and acetate buffer (pH 5) with excitation wavelength (λ_ex) 230 nm and emission wavelength (λ_em) 307 nm. The limit of detection (LOD) was 0.37 ng ml^?1 for the pure form, 0.64 ng ml^?1 for human urine, and 0.70 ng ml^?1 for human plasma, while the limit of quantitation (LOQ) was 1.2 for pure form, 1.91 for urine and 2.1 for plasma. The suggested method was successfully applied for evaluation of IMB in tablets within 99% mean percentage recovery. The excipients that are usually used as additives in pharmaceutical dosage form did not interfere with the suggested method. The method was efficiently used for estimation of IMB in human urine and human plasma. The effect of some cations that might be present in urine and plasma was also studied. The method was also focused on human volunteers and in vitro drug release.     

Effect of short‐term (0–72 h) fasting on serum biochemical characteristics in rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss

An experiment was carried out to investigate the effects of short‐term fasting periods on the serum biochemical characteristics of rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss. For this purpose, fish were fasted 0, 6, 12, 24, 48 and 72 h before blood sampling. Thereafter the serum levels of thyroxine (T₄), 3,5,3′‐triiodothyronine (T₃), cortisol, glucose, lactate, triglyceride, cholesterol, total protein, albumin, globulin and albumin : globulin ration (A : G) were determined. Results show that serum levels of T₄ (4.60–8.77 ng ml^?1), T₃ (7.50–13.3 ng ml^?1), cortisol (7.91–24.5 ng ml^?1), glucose (18.5–80.1 mg dl^?1), lactate (12.7–29.6 mg dl^?1), triglyceride (171–500 mg dl^?1), and cholesterol (321–535 mg dl^?1) were significantly affected by the fasting period. However, there were no significant changes in serum total protein (3.03–3.68 g dl^?1), albumin (1.78–2.01 g dl^?1), globulin (1.15–1.70 g dl^?1) or A : G (1.13–1.93) among the fish fasted 0–72 h. Results clearly show the importance of a fasting period on the serum biochemical properties of rainbow trout. According to the results, 24 h fasting is suggested as a pre‐sampling fasting period in rainbow trout to measure serum levels of T₄, T₃, cortisol, glucose, lactate, triglyceride, and cholesterol. Potential mechanisms related to the changes in biochemical properties are discussed.     

ETHEPHON (2-CHLOROETHYLPHOSPHONIC ACID) EFFECTS ON SCENEDESMUS QUADRICAUDA (CHLOROPHYCEAE)1,2

Growth of Scenedesmus quadricauda (Turp.) Bréb. was significantly increased when the cultures were grown in Ethephon 68–241 (2-chloroethylphosphonic acid) at concentrations of 0.001–1.0 μg · ml^?1. At 0.1 μg · ml^?1, Ethephon caused a significant increase in RNA levels on a dry weight basis. Total protein and DNA levels increased but not significantly. These data indicate that ethylene, the decomposition product of Ethephon at physiological pH, has some effect on the metabolism of algae.     

First report on OH-PAHs in South African Clarias gariepinus bile from an urban impacted system

The concentrations of selected hydroxylated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (OH-PAHs) were determined in the bile of the African sharptooth catfish Clarias gariepinus from impoundments in the urban impacted Klip River system in Soweto, South Africa. Fish were sampled from three impoundments (Lenasia, Fleurhof, and Orlando dams) during the early high-flow season (September/October) of 2013. Biliary OH-PAHs were analysed using a high-pressure liquid chromatograph coupled to a tandem mass spectrometer (HPLC-MS/MS). Seven of the thirteen targeted metabolites were present in the fish of Soweto. The ΣOH-PAHs ranged between 0.1 and 1 876 ng ml^?1, with greatest ΣOH-PAH mean at Orlando (947 ng ml^?1) followed by Fleurhof (371 ng ml^?1). The most dominant metabolite in the sampling area was 2–,3–OH fluorene, ranging between not detected and 1 429 ng ml^?1, with the greatest mean at Orlando (709 ng ml^?1). PAH metabolites quantified in C. gariepinus most likely originated from the sediments. The hepatosomatic index of the C. gariepinus increased proportionally with the biliary OH-PAH concentrations. To the authors’ knowledge this data on biliary OH-PAH for fish is the first for South Africa.     

Chronic stress of rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss at high altitude: a field study

The stress response of Oncorhynchus mykiss in high‐altitude farms in central Mexico was investigated over two seasons: the cool (9·1–13·7° C) dry winter season, and the warmer (14·7–15·9° C), wetter summer season. Fish were subjected to an acute stress test followed by sampling of six physiological variables: blood cortisol, glucose, lactate, total antioxidant capacity, haemoglobin concentration and per cent packed cell volume (V_PC%). Multivariate analyses revealed that lactate and total antioxidant capacity were significantly higher in the summer, when water temperatures were warmer and moderate hypoxia (4·9–5·3 mg l^?1) prevailed. In contrast, plasma cortisol was significantly higher in the winter (mean ± s.e .: 76·7 ± 4·0 ng ml^?1) when temperatures were cooler and dissolved oxygen levels higher (6·05–7·9 mg l^?1), than in the summer (22·7 ± 3·8 ng ml^?1). Haemoglobin concentrations (mg dl^?1) were not significantly different between seasons, but V_PC% was significantly higher in the summer (50%) than in the winter (35%). These results suggest that in summer, effects of high altitude on farmed fish are exacerbated by stresses of high temperatures and hypoxia, resulting in higher blood lactate, increased total antioxidant capacity and elevated V_PC% levels.     

Seasonal variation in steroid hormones and blood parameters in cage-farmed European sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax L.)

For a period of 1 year, some blood parameters were evaluated on a monthly basis in a population of adult European sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax L.) intensively reared in floating marine cages (Ionian Sea, Mediterranean). From April (13 months old) to July (16 months old) males (35–50%) and sexually indeterminate individuals were collected. From August to March (24 months old) only males were sampled. During this period the percentage of spermiated males was highest (100%) from November (20 months old) to January (22 months old). Plasma testosterone in males was inversely related to sunlight (h month^?1) and was elevated between October and January, when males first achieved sexual maturity. Testosterone showed the highest value (0.49 ± 0.02 ng ml^?1) in January and the lowest (0.09 ± 0.02 ng ml^?1) in March. Haematocrit, red blood cell counts and haemoglobin concentration were elevated from November to March, being inversely related to sunlight. The two latter parameters were also inversely related to daily food intake. Haematocrit, red blood cell counts and haemoglobin concentration were highest in December [53 ± 1%, (5.36 ± 0.06) × 10⁶ mm^?3, 10.08 ± 0.14 g 100 ml^?1, respectively] and lowest in June [35 ± 1%, (3.33 ± 0.05) × 10⁶ mm^?3, 6.47 ± 0.13 g 100 ml^?1, respectively]. White blood cell counts were not correlated with sea water temperature, sunlight or daily food intake. They were highest in February [(8.45 ± 0.20) × 10⁴ mm^?3] and lowest in April [(6.07 ± 0.14) × 10⁴ mm^?3]. Total plasma protein concentration (4.88 ± 0.11–5.93 ± 0.10 g 100 ml^?1) and mean cell volume (93.3 ± 0.9–105.5 ± 1.8 μm³) showed small fluctuations throughout the year. Sexual maturity appears to be a major factor that significantly affects haemopoiesis of D. labrax. This study contributes to the evaluation of normal levels of some blood parameters in European sea bass, which are helpful for the assessment of physiological status and health of this species.     

Aquatic effect duration study of Cry4 toxin with immunoassay and Aedes aegypti larval biotest

Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. israelensis (Bti) preparations are widely used for culicid larvae. There is no suitable commercially available analytical method for Cry4 toxin as active ingredient in Bti preparations. To overcome this limitation, an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was developed for quantitative determination of Cry4 toxin allowing a limit of detection (LOD) of ～2 ng ml^?1 in water. Preconcentration of aqueous samples by lyophilisation resulted in low but reproducible recoveries (25.7±6.8%), and the practical LODs for Bti preparations VECTOBAC WDG granulate and VECTOBAC 12 AS suspension were found to be ～170 ng ml^?1 and ～900 ng ml^?1, respectively. ELISA determinations indicated a rapid decay in detectable concentrations of VECTOBAC WDG applied at 400 ng ml^?1 concentration in surface water: detected concentrations decreased by 18% and 44% in 4 days in water collected from two locations, and dropped below LOD afterwards. Larval mortality of Aedes aegypti indicated a continuous decrease even thereafter. Thus, quantitative Cry4 toxin detection facilitates proper timing and frequency of treatments to achieve optimal efficacy.     

The effects of design of individual stalls on the social behaviour and physiological responses related to the welfare of pregnant pigs

Plasma free-corticosteroid concentrations, aggressive behaviour and levels of motivation to socially interact and explore a novel environment were observed in an experiment to test the hypothesis that the chronic stress response previously observed in tether housed pigs may have been due to unresolved aggression between adjacent pigs, and was attributable to the design of the stall. Twenty-five pregnant gilts were housed in 4 treatments: unmodified tether stalls; modified tether stalls (designed to reduce aggressive interactions between adjacent pigs by the addition of steel mesh to part of the stall division); cage stalls (also with mesh divisions); and a group.Gilts in the unmodified tether stalls showed a sustained elevation of free-corticosteroid concentrations, indicative of a chronic stress response, changes in their level of motivation to interact with stimulus pigs in a standard test, and a higher proportion of aggressive interactions between neighbouring pigs resulting in withdrawal rather than retaliation. These data suggest reduced welfare in the unmodified tether stalls.The addition of mesh to the sides of the tether stalls reduced the number of interactions between neighbouring pigs compared to the unmodified tether stalls treatment and virtually eliminated aggressive interactions. Concomitant to the reduction in aggressive interactions was a reduction in free-corticosteroid concentrations, suggesting that the welfare of pigs in the modified tether stalls, cage stalls and group treatments was similar.It was concluded that modifying the design of the tether stall to minimize aggressive interactions between adjacent pigs improves welfare by avoiding a chronic increase in free-corticosteroid concentrations.     

The Effect of Transdermal Delivery of Fentanyl on Activity in Growing Pigs

Recently, decreased activity levels have been observed in pigs treated postoperatively with transdermal delivery of fentanyl (TD-fentanyl) after isoflurane anaesthesia. Whether the change in behaviour is related to opioid-induced sedation or to insufficient pain relief remains to be investigated. This study was therefore undertaken to evaluate the effect of TD-fentanyl 50 μg h^-1 on the activity level with and without isoflurane anaesthesia. Eight pigs (25.4 ± 5.2 kg) were submitted to a cross-over study and given two treatments; 1) fentanyl patch applied after 30 minutes of anaesthesia (treatment A/F) and 2) fentanyl patch without anaesthesia (treatment F). The pigs' behaviour was observed from a video recording instantaneously every 10 minutes for 24 h before treatments and up to 72 h after the patch attachment. Venous blood samples were taken 1, 6, 12, 24, 48 and 72 h after the patch application. The behaviour recordings showed that TD-fentanyl did not produce sedation in any pig. No differences were found between the two treatments in activity level, weight gain or serum fentanyl concentration. This concentration measured after 24 h was 0.27 ± 0.11 ng ml^-1 and 0.47 ± 0.40 ng ml^-1 in the A/F and F group, respectively.     

Analysis of myosmine,cotinine and nicotine in human toenail,plasma and saliva

Myosmine is a minor tobacco alkaloid with widespread occurrence in the human diet. Myosmine is genotoxic in human cells and is readily nitrosated and peroxidated yielding reactive intermediates with carcinogenic potential. For biomonitoring of short-term and long-term exposure, analytical methods were established for determination of myosmine together with nicotine and cotinine in plasma, saliva and toenail by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC/MS). Validation of the method with samples of 14 smokers and 10 non-smokers showed smoking-dependent differences of myosmine in toenails (66?±?56 vs 21?±?15?ng?g^?1, p?<0.01) as well as saliva (2.54?±?2.68 vs 0.73?±?0.65?ng ml^?1, p <0.01). However, these differences were much smaller than those with nicotine (1971?±?818 vs 132?±?82?ng g^?1, p <0.0001) and cotinine (1237?±?818 vs <35?ng?g^?1) in toenail and those of cotinine (97.43?±?84.54 vs 1.85?±?4.50?ng ml^?1, p <0.0001) in saliva. These results were confirmed in plasma samples from 84 patients undergoing gastro-oesophageal endoscopy. Differences between 25 smokers and 59 non-smokers are again much lower for myosmine (0.30?±?0.35 vs 0.16?±?0.18?ng?ml^?1, p <0.05) than for cotinine (54.67?±?29.63 vs 0.61?±?1.82?ng ml^?1, p <0.0001). In conclusion, sources other than tobacco contribute considerably to the human body burden of myosmine.