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1.
Over the past 10–15 years, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy has been employed to study metabolic events accompanying
programmed cell death (apoptosis). The early studies were characterized by experiments focusing on specific metabolic parameters
obtained by analyzing a limited number of biochemical compounds, e.g. selected metabolic species involved in the Krebs cycle,
in energy metabolism, in phospholipid synthesis and degradation, or in mobile-lipid accumulation. However, during the past
few years metabolic NMR spectroscopy has begun to refocus towards more comprehensive analyses of tissue metabolites detectable in NMR spectra. This review describes some requirements needed for the development
of an integrated, metabolomic concept for NMR spectroscopy investigations of apoptotic cells, and presents recent studies
approaching this goal. Metabolomic NMR spectroscopy allows one not only to distinguish between cells that are sensitive to
apoptosis induction and resistant cells, but also, in conjunction with measurements of complementary biological parameters,
to follow the temporal evolution of the apoptotic process and to analyze mechanisms of apoptosis resistance. 相似文献
2.
Natural organosulfur compounds (OSCs) have been shown to have chemopreventive effects and to suppress the proliferation of
tumor cells in vitro through the induction of apoptosis. The biochemical mechanisms underlying the antitumorigenic and anti-proliferative
effects of garlic-derived OSCs are not fully understood. Several modes of action of these compounds have been proposed, and
it seems likely that the rate of clearance of allyl sulfur groups from cells is a determinant of the overall response. The
aim of this review is to focus attention on the effects of natural allyl sulfur compounds on the cell detoxification system
in normal and tumor cells. It has been already reported that several natural allyl sulfur compounds induce chemopreventive
effects by affecting xenobiotic metabolizing enzymes and inducing their down-activation. Moreover, different effects of water-
and oil-soluble allyl sulfur compounds on enzymes involved in the detoxification system of rat tissues have been observed.
A direct interaction of the garlic allyl sulfur compounds with proteins involved in the detoxification system was studied
in order to support the hypothesis that proteins possessing reactive thiol groups and that are involved in the detoxification
system and in the cellular redox homeostasis, are likely the preferential targets of these compounds. The biochemical transformation
of the OSCs in the cell and their adducts with thiol functional groups of these proteins, could be considered relevant events
to uncover the anticancer properties of the allyl sulfur compounds. Although additional studies, using proteomic approaches
and transgenic models, are needed to identify the molecular targets and modes of action of these natural compounds, the allyl
sulfur compounds can represent potential ideal agents in anticancer therapy, either alone or in association with other antitumor
drugs. 相似文献
3.
Analogs of the autoinducer of bioluminescence inVibrio fischer 总被引:14,自引:0,他引:14
Anatol Eberhard Cindra A. Widrig Paula McBath Jeffrey B. Schineller 《Archives of microbiology》1986,146(1):35-40
The enzymes for luminescence inVibrio fischeri are induced only when a sufficient concentration of a metabolic product (autoinducer) specifically produced by this species accumulates. It has previously been shown that the autoinducer is 3-oxohexanoyl homoserine lactone and that it enters the cells by simple diffusion. To further study the mechanism of induction, we have synthesized several analogs of the autoinducer. The analogs were tested withV. fischeri for their inducing activity and for their ability to inhibit the action of the natural autoinducer. The compounds were found to display various combinations of inducing and inhibiting abilities. None of the compounds tested appeared to have any effect on cells ofV. harveyi strain MAV orPhotobacterium leiognathi strain 721, but several of the compounds decreased light output byP. phosphoreum strain 8265. These studies show that 1) the site of action of the autoinducer is not highly sterically constrained 2) the autoinducers of other species of luminous bacteria are likely to be quite different from that ofV. fischeri and 3) a simple mode in which one autoinducer molecule binds to a single receptor protein site and thus initiates luciferase synthesis is inadequate. The analogs should prove useful in the study of the binding site and mode of action of the autoinducer.Abbreviations SWC
sea water complete 相似文献
4.
An apoptosis targeted stimulus with nanosecond pulsed electric fields (nsPEFs) in E4 squamous cell carcinoma 总被引:1,自引:0,他引:1
Stimuli directed towards activation of apoptosis mechanisms are an attractive approach to eliminate evasion of apoptosis,
a ubiquitous cancer hallmark. In these in vitro studies, kinetics and electric field thresholds for several apoptosis characteristics
are defined in E4 squamous carcinoma cells (SCC) exposed to ten 300 ns pulses with increasing electric fields. Cell death
was >95% at the highest electric field and coincident with phosphatidylserine externalization, caspase and calpain activation
in the presence and absence of cytochrome c release, decreases in Bid and mitochondria membrane potential (Δψm) without apparent changes reactive oxygen species levels
or in Bcl2 and Bclxl levels. Bid cleavage was caspase-dependent (55–60%) and calcium-dependent (40–45%). Intracellular calcium
as an intrinsic mechanism and extracellular calcium as an extrinsic mechanism were responsible for about 30 and 70% of calcium
dependence for Bid cleavage, respectively. The results reveal electric field-mediated cell death induction and progression,
activating pro-apoptotic-like mechanisms and affecting plasma membrane and intracellular functions, primarily through extrinsic-like
pathways with smaller contributions from intrinsic-like pathways. Nanosecond second pulsed electric fields trigger heterogeneous
cell death mechanisms in E4 SCC populations to delete them, with caspase-associated cell death as a predominant, but not an
unaccompanied event. 相似文献
5.
Although resveratrol, an active ingredient derived from grapes and red wine, possesses chemopreventive properties against
several cancers, the molecular mechanisms by which it inhibits cell growth and induces apoptosis have not been clearly understood.
Here, we examined the molecular mechanisms of resveratrol and its interactive effects with TRAIL on apoptosis in prostate
cancer PC-3 and DU-145 cells. Resveratrol inhibited cell viability and colony formation, and induced apoptosis in prostate
cancer cells. Resveratrol downregulated the expression of Bcl-2, Bcl-XL and survivin and upregulated the expression of Bax, Bak, PUMA, Noxa, and Bim, and death receptors (TRAIL-R1/DR4 and TRAIL-R2/DR5).
Treatment of prostate cancer cells with resveratrol resulted in generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), translocation
of Bax to mitochondria and subsequent drop in mitochondrial membrane potential, release of mitochondrial proteins (cytochrome
c, Smac/DIABLO, and AIF) to cytosol, activation of effector caspase-3 and caspase-9, and induction of apoptosis. Resveratrol-induced
ROS production, caspase-3 activity and apoptosis were inhibited by N-acetylcysteine. Bax was a major proapoptotic gene mediating the effects of resveratrol as Bax siRNA inhibited resveratrol-induced
apoptosis. Resveratrol enhanced the apoptosis-inducing potential of TRAIL, and these effects were inhibited by either dominant
negative FADD or caspase-8 siRNA. The combination of resveratrol and TRAIL enhanced the mitochondrial dysfunctions during
apoptosis. These properties of resveratrol strongly suggest that it could be used either alone or in combination with TRAIL
for the prevention and/or treatment of prostate cancer. 相似文献
6.
Dietary phytochemicals offer protection from oxidative damages and lower the risks of chronic diseases, by complementary and overlapping action mechanisms. These include antioxidant activity, regulation of gene expression and cell cycle, stimulation of the immune and hormonal systems and modulation of cell–cell communication. Gap-junction intercellular communication (GJIC) plays an important role in maintaining tissue homeostasis by allowing the intercellular exchange of ions and regulatory molecules associated with cell proliferation, differentiation and apoptosis, and by contributing to intracellular signaling. This mechanism is strictly regulated and abnormal GJIC can result in several pathological conditions. GJIC is deregulated in cancer cells and reversible GJIC inhibition is strongly related to the promotion phase of carcinogenesis, likely mediated by reactive oxygen species. Whereas, the reversible inhibition of GJIC is related to the promotion phase of carcinogenicity, enhancers of GJIC are expected to prevent cancer. Several dietary plant compounds demonstrated the ability to control GJIC at the epigenetic levels and to prevent GJIC down-regulation by tumor promoting compounds, thus preventing cancers. In this Commentary, a number of reported studies on several phytochemicals in dietary and medicinal plants, which were able to affect GJIC and their structural proteins, i.e., connexins, in different in vivo and in vitro systems, were examined. The growing evidence, on the involvement of plant-derived molecules in the modulation of GJIC and in understanding of the specific action mechanisms, might offer a new perspective of the protective and/or preventive effects of dietary phytochemicals, in addition to possible chemotherapeutic use. 相似文献
7.
Nitrosamines are stable compounds, biologically and chemically inert unless activated. In biological systems, N-nitrosodiethylamine (NDEA) can be activated by a variety of enzymes, leading to aldehydes and/or intermediates which are
themselves alkylating agents. Additionally, it has been shown that NDEA causes reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and
induces mutagenicity. The cell defense seeks to neutralize ROS that escape the primary defense mechanisms (antioxidants) by
DNA-repair mechanisms. NDEA is present at low concentrations in major dietary sources, like cured meats, salami, millet flour,
and dried cuttlefish, where NDEA mutagenicity has been detected. These facts lead us to evaluate vitamin E as a ROS scavenger,
in Escherichia coli mutants system, against genotoxicity induced by NDEA at low concentrations under exogenous metabolic activation. Statistical
analysis were performed in order to compare the effects of NDEA-induced genotoxicity (a) between the mutants and the wild-type
strains, at the same metabolic activation conditions and, (b) between the same strains in the presence or in the absence of
vitamin E (150 μM). The indirect evaluation of ROS production by NDEA metabolizing shows that vitamin E protects E. coli cells proficient or deficient in the DNA-repair genes from cytotoxic effects. Our results underscore the role of scavenger
molecules such as vitamin E in the diet, avoiding lesions induced by NDEA at low concentrations, via ROS, that could be repaired
by nucleotide excision repair and base excision repair proteins. 相似文献
8.
Signal transduction pathways leading to cell cycle arrest and apoptosis induction in cancer cells by Allium vegetable-derived organosulfur compounds: a review 总被引:10,自引:0,他引:10
Epidemiological studies continue to support the premise that dietary intake of Allium vegetables (e.g., garlic, onions and so forth) may lower the risk of various types of cancer. Anticarcinogenic effect of Allium vegetables is attributed to organosulfur compounds (OSCs) that are generated upon processing of these vegetables. Preclinical studies have provided convincing evidence to indicate that Allium vegetable-derived OSCs including diallyl sulfide, diallyl disulfide and diallyl trisulfide are highly effective in affording protection against cancer in laboratory animals induced by a variety of chemical carcinogens. Inhibition of carcinogen activation through modulation of cytochrome P450-dependent monooxygenases and/or acceleration of carcinogen detoxification via induction of phase II enzymes (glutathione transferases, quinone reductase, etc.) are believed to be responsible for protective effects of OSCs against chemically induced cancers. More recent studies have indicated that some naturally occurring OSC analogues can suppress proliferation of cancer cells in culture and inhibit growth of transplanted tumor xenografts in vivo by inducing apoptosis and/or by perturbing cell cycle progression. This review summarizes current knowledge on signal transduction pathways leading to perturbations in cell cycle progression and apoptosis induction by OSCs. 相似文献
9.
Two intertidal snails, Littorina saxatilis (Olivi, 1972) (upper eulittoral fringe/maritime zone) and Littorina obtusata (Linnaeus, 1758) (lower eulittoral) were collected from a boulder shore on Nobska Point, Cape Cod, Massachusetts, in July
and acclimated for 15–20 days at 4 ° or 21 °C. Oxygen consumption rate (Vo2) was determined for 11–15 subsamples of individuals at 4 °, 11 ° and 21 °C with silver/platinum oxygen electrodes. Multiple
factor analysis of variance (MFANOVA) of lo10 transformed values of whole animal Vo2 with log10 dry tissue weight (DTW) as a covariant revealed that increased test temperature induced a significant increase in Vo2 in both species (P<0.00001). In contrast, MFANOVA revealed that temperature acclimation did not affect Vo2 in either L. saxatilis (P= 0.35) or L. obtusata (P= 0.095). Thus, neither species displayed a capacity for the typical metabolic temperature compensation marked by an increase
in Vo2 at any one test temperature in individuals acclimated to a lower temperature that is characteristic of most ectothermic animals.
Lack of capacity for metabolic temperature acclimation has also been reported in other littorinid snail species, and may be
characteristic of the group as a whole. Lack of capacity for respiratory temperature acclimation in these two species and
other littorinids may reflect the extensive semi-diurnal temperature variation that they are exposed to in their eulittoral
and eulittoral fringe/maritime zone habitats. In these habitats, any metabolic benefits derived from longer-term temperature
compensation of metabolic rates are negated by extreme daily temperature fluctuations. Instead, littorinid species appear
to have evolved mechanisms for immediate metabolic regulation which, in L. saxatilis and L. obtusata and other littorinids, appear to centre on a unique ability for near instantaneous suppression of metabolic rate and entrance
into short-term metabolic diapause at temperatures above 20–35 °C, making typical seasonal respiratory compensation mechanisms
characteristic of most ectotherms of little adaptive value to littorinid species. 相似文献
10.
Claudia Cerella Christiane Scherer Silvia Cristofanon Estelle Henry Awais Anwar Corinna Busch Mathias Montenarh Mario Dicato Claus Jacob Marc Diederich 《Apoptosis : an international journal on programmed cell death》2009,14(5):641-654
Naturally occurring organic sulfur compounds (OSCs), such as linear allylsulfides from Allium species, are attracting attention in cancer research, since several OSCs were shown to act beneficially both in chemoprevention
and in chemotherapy, while hardly exerting any harmful side effects. Hence, we investigated the possible role of different
OSCs in the treatment of leukemia. Thereby, we found that the compounds tested in this study induced apoptosis in U937 cells,
with an efficiency depending on the number of sulfides, and selected the most promising candidate, diallyltetrasulfide (Al2S4),
for detailed mechanistic studies. Here we show that Al2S4 induced an accumulation of cells in early mitosis (G2/M phase),
followed by the activation of caspase-dependent apoptosis. The compound counteracted different anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 family
members (Bcl-xL, phospho-Bad and Bcl-2), promoted activation of Bax and Bak and induced the release of cytochrome c into the cytoplasm. Treatment by Al2S4 let to the identification of early apoptotic events including Bcl-xL degradation,
Bak activation and release of cytochrome c followed by late events including Bcl-2 proteolysis, Bax activation, Bad dephosphorylation, caspase activation, nuclear fragmentation
and phosphatidylserine exposure.
Claudia Cerella and Christiane Scherer, both authors equally contributed to this work. 相似文献
11.
12.
An encrusting colonial hydroid can be regarded as a network of polyps or ‘mouths’ connected by tube-like stolons. The success
of the colony crucially depends on putting these mouths where the available food is. Feeding-related perturbations may provide
important signals in this regard. After feeding, polyps contract regularly, dispersing food throughout the colony via the
gastrovascular fluid. Mitochondrion-rich epitheliomuscular cells concentrated near polyp-stolon junctions likely drive these
contractions. Putatively, the redox state of these cells may influence colony-level form. For instance, the metabolic demand
associated with feeding-related contractions results in mitochondria that have relatively oxidized electron carriers and produce
lesser amounts of reactive oxygen species (ROS). ROS or other redox-sensitive molecules emitted from polyp-stolon junctions
into the gastrovascular fluid may provide stolons with signals influencing elongation, branching, and regression. Treatments
of colonies with anti-oxidants cause peripheral stolon tips to rapidly regress. This regression appears to be an active process
involving a flux of locally produced peroxides and cell and tissue death. At the same time, polyps and stolon tips in the
center of treated colonies remain healthy. ‘Sheet-like’ growth of short, branched stolons ensues. Signals that inhibit the
outward growth of stolons may lead by default to the concentrated growth of stolons and polyps in food-rich areas. ROS may
mediate signaling mechanisms involving nitric oxide, programmed cell death, a variety of redox-regulated proteins, or all
of these. 相似文献
13.
An improved method for monitoring cell death in cell suspension and leaf disc assays using evans blue 总被引:22,自引:0,他引:22
Cell viability or cell death is an important variable to monitor in many studies of host/pathogen interactions. However for studies that focus on events within the first few hours of the interaction, many of the viability assays currently being used are either too laborious and time consuming or measure the cell's temporary metabolic state rather than irreversible cell death. Evans blue has proven over the years to be a dependable stain for microscopic determination of cell death. We have used this stain to develop a spectrophotometric procedure that allows rapid, reproducible quantification of the stain retained by dead cells. This spectrophotometric procedure was used to compare plant/bacteria interactions involving either soybean/Pseudomonas syringae pv. glycinea or tobacco/P. syringae pv. syringae. Relative increases in cell death during these interactions in suspension cell systems were measured by both the spectrophotometric and microscopic technique and found to be similar. The spectrophotometric procedure was also adapted for leaf disc assays.Abbreviations HR
hypersensitive response
- SDS
sodium dodecyl sulfate 相似文献
14.
Gröbner S Autenrieth SE Soldanova I Gunst DS Schaller M Bohn E Müller S Leverkus M Wesselborg S Autenrieth IB Borgmann S 《Apoptosis : an international journal on programmed cell death》2006,11(11):1959-1968
Yersinia outer protein P (YopP) is a virulence factor of Yersinia enterocolitica that is injected into the cytosol of host cells where it targets MAP kinase kinases (MKKs) and inhibitor of κB kinase (IKK)-β
resulting in inhibition of cytokine production as well as induction of apoptosis in murine macrophages and dendritic cells
(DC). Here we show that DC death was only partially prevented by the broad spectrum caspase inhibitor zVAD-fmk, indicating
simultaneous caspase-dependent and caspase-independent mechanisms of cell death induction by YopP. Microscopic analyses and
measurement of cell size demonstrated necrosis-like morphology of caspase-independent cell death. Application of zVAD-fmk
prevented cleavage of procaspases and Bid, decrease of the inner transmembrane mitochondrial potential ΔΨm and mitochondrial release of cytochrome c. From these data we conclude that YopP-induced activation of the mitochondrial
death pathway is mediated upstream via caspases. In conclusion, our results suggest that YopP simultaneously induces caspase-dependent
apoptotic and caspase-independent necrosis-like death in DC. However, it has to be resolved if necrosis-like DC death occurs
independently from apoptotic events or as an apoptotic epiphenomenon. 相似文献
15.
The effects of in vivo administration of naturally occurring organosulfur compounds (OSCs) from Allium species were studied on the activation of several mutagens. Male SPF Wistar rats were given p.o. one of either diallyl sulfide (DAS), diallyl disulfide (DADS), dipropyl sulfide (DPS) or dipropyl disulfide (DPDS) during 4 consecutive days and the ability of hepatic S9 and microsomes from treated rats to activate benzo[a]pyrene (BaP), cyclophosphamide (CP), dimethylnitrosamine (DMN), N-nitrosopiperidine (N-PiP) and 2-amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo[4,5-b]pyridine (PhIP) was determined in the Ames test. Administration of DAS, DPS and DPDS resulted in a significant increase of the activation of BaP, CP, N-PiP and PhIP mediated by S9 and microsomes while DADS treatment only increased the mutagenicity of PhIP. In contrast, S9 from DADS-treated rats significantly inhibited the mutagenicity of N-PiP and BaP. DAS, DADS and DPS strongly inhibited DMN mutagenicity while DPDS enhanced it. To understand the mechanisms underlying these effects, the modifications of the activities of specific isozymes of CYP involved in the activation of these mutagens were studied. DAS, DPS and DPDS strongly enhanced pentoxyresorufin O-dealkylase (PROD) activity related to CYP2B and slightly increased ethoxyresorufin O-deethylase (EROD) and methoxyresorufin O-demethylase (MROD) activities related to CYP1A family. DADS exerted the same effects than other OSCs but to a lesser extent. p-Nitrophenol hydroxylase (PNPH) activity related to CYP2E1 was inhibited by DAS and DADS, whereas DPDS significantly increased this activity. Hence, the effects of OSCs on the mutagenicity of several genotoxic compounds are mediated by modification (enhancement or inhibition) of specific CYP involved in their activation. 相似文献
16.
17.
While cultivation is a convenient way of proliferating and understanding bacteria, studies have shown the formation of nonculturable
cells in nonspore-forming bacteria in response to environmental stress and thus in turn have generated immense interest. Whether
these cells are in a state of dormancy or in a stage preceding cell death has been considered of paramount importance for
the past couple of decades. In this study, osmotic-stress-induced dormant bacterial cells were separated by cell sorting and
revived by osmotic down-shift in the absence of nutrients, source(s) that potentially could supply nutrients, and/or the external
addition of resuscitation factor(s). Reversal of dormancy followed a definite pattern akin to population asynchrony of dormant
cells, and the phenomenon was observed across three species, namely, Enterobacter sp. strain mcp11b, Klebsiella pneumonia strain mcp11d and Escherichia coli. In addition, our study precisely forecasted the presence of multiple subpopulations in dormant cells, which is explained
by an emerging theory of survival mechanisms in stressful environments. These observations reveal that the state of dormancy
induced by environmental stress in these nonspore-forming bacteria is “reversible” and also implies that it is an orderly
and spontaneous adaptation to circumvent adverse conditions.
Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users. 相似文献
18.
V. A. Kobliakov 《Biochemistry. Biokhimii?a》2010,75(6):675-685
This review analyzes the available information concerning mechanisms of non-genotoxic action of reactive oxygen species (ROS)
during tumor promotion and pathways of their generation under the influence of chemical compounds. Special attention is given
to the ability of ROS to induce pseudohypoxia through inhibition of prolyl oxidase, which is an oxygen sensor in the cell.
Functions of HIF-1α as a main contributor to the ROS-induced promotion are analyzed. Data suggest that an unregulated high
level of HIF-1α in the cell could induce the development of tumors. Hypothetical possibilities of ROS production under the
influence of different environmental pollutants, which are promoters of tumorigenesis, include functioning of cytochrome P450 during oxidation of substrates, functioning of the mitochondrial respiratory chain, and action of peroxisome proliferators. 相似文献
19.
Iona S Klinger FG Sisti R Ciccalese R Nunziata A De Felici M 《Cell biology and toxicology》2002,18(2):131-145
Several strategies for the assessment of reproductive toxicity of chemical compounds has have been proposed. In the present
work, we devised experimental in vitro assays to test the effect of potential toxicants on proliferating primordial germ cells (PGCs) in vitro using recently developed methods for isolation and culture of mouse PGCs. Primordial germ cells are the embryonic precursors
of gametes of the adult that carry the genome from generation to generation. Any damage or mutations caused to these cells
by potential toxicants might impair normal reproduction and be transmitted to next generation. Three representative compounds,
N-ethyl-N-nitrosourea (ENU), adriamycin (ADR), and mono-(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (MEHP), toxic to different targets and known to affect
germ cell development and impair fertility, were tested on PGCs in culture using three different experimental protocols. Survival
and growth of PGCs and their ability to adhere to cell monolayers, were taken as endpoints for drug effects. For each compound,
sublethal and acute toxicity doses were determined. In addition, information about the mechanisms of action of these compounds
on PGCs was obtained. Whereas the effects of ENU and ADR on PGCs were attributable to growth inhibition and apoptosis induction,
MEHP affected PGC adhesion to somatic cells without significantly altering their growth and survival. The results of our in vitro tests were not always exactly predictive of the effects of the tested compounds on PGCs in vivo, determined in parallel experiments in which pregnant mice were exposed to the same compounds. Nevertheless, they can provide
information on the sensitivity of PGCs to the direct action of drugs or the mechanisms of action of such agents.
This revised version was published online in August 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date. 相似文献
20.
The question of whether yeasts with similar physiological properties are closely related has been examined using recently
published phylogenetic analyses of 26S domain D1/D2 rDNA nucleotide sequences from all currently recognized ascomycetous yeasts.
When apparently unique metabolic pathways are examined, some relationships between physiology and rDNA phylogeny are evident.
Most Candida and Pichia species that are able to assimilate methanol as the sole carbon source are in a clade delimited by C. nanospora and C. boidinii. Exceptions are P. capsulata and P. pastoris which are phylogenetically separated from the other methanol-assimilating yeasts. Yeasts subject to the petite mutation,
resulting in respiratory deficiency, belong to three different clades, viz. a Saccharomyces clade delimited by S. cerevisiae and S. rosinii,the Dekkera/Brettanomyces clade, and some Schizosaccharomyces species (‘Archiascomycete’ clade). However, petite mutants were also found in Zygosaccharomyces fermentati and some other more distantly related species. Yeasts able to assimilate n-hexadecane, uric acid or amines as sole carbon
source are broadly distributed over the ascomycetous phylogenetic tree. However, species that assimilate adenine as sole carbon
source are closely related. Most of these species also assimilated glycine, uric acid, n-hexadecane, putrescine and branched-chain
aliphatic compounds such as isobutanol, leucine and isoleucine. Among the Saccharomycetales, species utilizing all or the
great majority of these eight compounds are in the Stephanoascus/Arxula/Blastobotrys clade. Candida blankii, which is distantly related to this clade, proved to be an exception and assimilated six of eight of these compounds.
This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date. 相似文献