真核生物蛋白质翻译的内部起始机制

蛋白质翻译过程中,翻译的起始步骤是非常重要的．真核生物的翻译起始主要是通过依赖帽子结构的扫描机制进行的．近几年在翻译的研究工作中发现,在一些动物病毒中,蛋白质合成通过一种不同于扫描机制的内部起始机制起始翻译．用内部起始机制翻译的mRNA的5′端非翻译区有一个相对保守的结构,它在内部起始过程中具有重要作用,一些特异的蛋白质因子能够促进在特定位点起始翻译．     

真核生物翻译起始机制

蛋白质生物合成是遗传信息的翻译过程,是基因表达的第二个阶段,整个翻译包括起始、延伸和终止3个阶段。其中起始阶段最为复杂,是调控的关键。在真核生物中,在各种起始因子的参与下,通过蛋白一蛋白和蛋白HNA的相互作用,使405核糖体小亚基（预起始复合物）与mRNA相互作用,形成起始复合物,再与6OS大亚基相结合。蛋白质合成起始,形成肽健,从而进入延伸阶段关于起始作用的机理关键在于4OS／J‘亚基富集（recruit）于mRNA的过程。即核糖体是如何鉴别mRNA上的起始密码子（AUG）,以适当的阅读框架开始翻译的。结合的方式目前有两…     

真核生物mRNA应激状态下的帽-非依赖性翻译

在真核生物中,mRNA翻译过程包括起始、延伸和终止。其中,翻译的起始阶段最为重要且复杂,它决定了mRNA能否被有效翻译成蛋白质。根据翻译起始机制的不同,真核生物mRNA翻译可以分为传统的帽-依赖性翻译和替代机制帽-非依赖性翻译。当外部环境的刺激或细胞自身的改变使细胞处于应激状态时,传统的帽-依赖性翻译被抑制或下调,替代机制帽-非依赖性翻译得以启动,以保证翻译的顺利进行。真核生物在应激状态下为了维持蛋白质合成的需求,采用多种翻译起始机制来实现帽-非依赖性翻译。其中较常见的是IRES(internal ribosome entry site)、m⁶A修饰和CITE(cap-independent translation enhancer)所启动的翻译。这些机制允许核糖体在mRNA的特殊区域内部进行启动,而不依赖于传统的m⁷G帽结构。通过这些机制,真核生物可以在应激状态下仍然进行蛋白质合成,以满足细胞的需要。本文在总结传统帽-依赖性翻译研究进展基础上,着重介绍IRES、m⁶A和CITE所启动的帽-非依赖性翻译,为更好地探索细胞...     

eIF4A在帽依赖和IRES介导的翻译起始中的作用

生物体内翻译起始机制分为两类：帽依赖性翻译起始和内部核糖体进入位点(internal ribosome entry sites, IRES)介导的翻译起始。真核生物的翻译起始为经典的帽依赖性翻译起始模型,而大多数正链RNA病毒选择依赖于IRES的翻译机制。真核翻译起始因子4A (eukaryotic initiation factor 4A, eIF4A)是DEAD-box RNA解旋酶家族的成员,具有依赖于RNA的ATP酶活性和RNA解旋酶活性,而e IF4A具体的解旋机制至今仍不清晰。同时,eIF4A与其他翻译因子有着复杂而紧密的联系,在帽依赖性与IRES介导的翻译起始过程中扮演着至关重要的角色。本文主要对eIF4A的功能、结构以及eIF4A在帽依赖性与IRES介导的翻译起始过程中的机制作一综述。     

真核生物蛋白质合成起始的研究进展

真核生物蛋白质合成起始的研究进展于长春王庆华,王海仁（四平师范学院生物系,吉林四平１３６０００）（山东大学生物系,济南２５０１００）关键词蛋白质合成,起始由于翻译的起始、细胞生长和肿瘤发生之间的关系已建立起来,因此蛋白质合成起始的研究是目前的热点之一...     

真核生物mRNA的帽结构与由结合蛋白

帽结构是所有ＲＮＡ聚合酶Ⅱ转录产物的特征性结构,它在ｍＲＮＡ的功能和代谢的很多方面起作用。在这些过程中还离不开相关蛋白质对它的识别和粘附,作为它行使功能的媒介,这些蛋白南就称为帽结合蛋白（Ｃａｐ－Ｂｉｎｄｉｎｇ Ｐｒｏｔｅｉｎ,ＣＢＰ）。该文主要讨论了帽结构与胞质中的ＣＢＰ－ｅＩＦ４Ｅ（ｅｕｋａｒｙｏｔｉｃ ｉｎｉｔｉａｔｉｏｎ ｆａｃｔｏｒ ４Ｅ,真核核起始因子４Ｅ）的相互作用在ｍＲＢＮＡ指导的     

真核细胞中多重表达框mRNA的选择性翻译起始

扫描模型和遗漏扫描模型是真核生物mRNA翻译起始的两种主要机制,但其仍存在某些例外情况,如对具有多顺反子结构的mRNA,选择性翻译起始的发生机制目前仍不清楚.本研究基于GFP蛋白开放表达框(ORF)构建了一系列重组表达载体,用以转录在移码翻译顺序及同一翻译顺序下,AUG起始密码子处于不同序列背景,以及间隔不同距离的多顺反子结构mRNA.通过转染人Bel 7402细胞系,研究了这些多顺反子结构mRNA的翻译起始模式.结果表明,在移码翻译顺序下,多顺反子mRNA可翻译出对应的不同蛋白质,而在同一翻译顺序下,GFP蛋白表达框中的多个AUG密码子,仅有首位起始密码子可发挥作用,提示核糖体在从首位起始密码子开始翻译的同时,可能会有部分核糖体继续向下扫描并识别下游的起始密码子,而这种选择性的翻译起始效率,主要取决于密码子所处的序列背景及间隔距离等因素.     

真核生物mRNA非翻译区结构特征与mRNA翻译

真核生物中蛋白质合成通常在翻译水平受到调控,而mRNA非翻译区与mRNA翻译之间关系密切。真核生物mRNA非翻译区长度、mRNA二级结构、GC含量、顺式作用元件与反式作用因子、mRNA帽端结构和多聚腺苷酸尾等结构对翻译具有重要的调控作用。本文就真核生物mRNA非翻译区结构特征对其翻译的影响做一综述。     

真核生物起始因子5

真核生物起始因子5(eIF-5)是一种重要的翻译起始因子,过去人们认为它只是GTP酶活化因子,催化eIF-2上的GTP水解,促进80 S起始复合体的形成.近年来人们发现它不仅可以催化eIF-2上的GTP水解,还参与eIF-3功能的发挥,与eIF-2、eIF-3同时结合,促进起始因子复合体的形成.     

Similar features in the mechanisms of mRNA translation initiation in eukaryotic and prokaryotic systems

Similar features in the mechanisms of mRNA translation initiation on prokaryotic and eukaryotic ribosomes are discussed with examples from mRNAs with nonstandard 5′-untranslated regions (5′-UTRs) and mRNAs lacking 5′-UTR (leaderless mRNAs).     

De novo translation initiation on membrane-bound ribosomes as a mechanism for localization of cytosolic protein mRNAs to the endoplasmic reticulum

The specialized protein synthesis functions of the cytosol and endoplasmic reticulum compartments are conferred by the signal recognition particle (SRP) pathway, which directs the cotranslational trafficking of signal sequence-encoding mRNAs from the cytosol to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Although subcellular mRNA distributions largely mirror the binary pattern predicted by the SRP pathway model, studies in mammalian cells, yeast, and Drosophila have also demonstrated that cytosolic protein-encoding mRNAs are broadly represented on ER-bound ribosomes. A mechanism for such noncanonical mRNA localization remains, however, to be identified. Here, we examine the hypothesis that de novo translation initiation on ER-bound ribosomes serves as a mechanism for localizing cytosolic protein-encoding mRNAs to the ER. As a test of this hypothesis, we performed single molecule RNA fluorescence in situ hybridization studies of subcellular mRNA distributions and report that a substantial fraction of mRNAs encoding the cytosolic protein GAPDH resides in close proximity to the ER. Consistent with these data, analyses of subcellular mRNA and ribosome distributions in multiple cell lines demonstrated that cytosolic protein mRNA-ribosome distributions were strongly correlated, whereas signal sequence-encoding mRNA-ribosome distributions were divergent. Ribosome footprinting studies of ER-bound polysomes revealed a substantial initiation codon read density enrichment for cytosolic protein-encoding mRNAs. We also demonstrate that eukaryotic initiation factor 2α is bound to the ER via a salt-sensitive, ribosome-independent mechanism. Combined, these data support ER-localized translation initiation as a mechanism for mRNA recruitment to the ER.     

Ribosomal position and contacts of mRNA in eukaryotic translation initiation complexes

The position of mRNA on 40S ribosomal subunits in eukaryotic initiation complexes was determined by UV crosslinking using mRNAs containing uniquely positioned 4-thiouridines. Crosslinking of mRNA positions (+)11 to ribosomal protein (rp) rpS2(S5p) and rpS3(S3p), and (+)9-(+)11 and (+)8-(+)9 to h18 and h34 of 18S rRNA, respectively, indicated that mRNA enters the mRNA-binding channel through the same layers of rRNA and proteins as in prokaryotes. Upstream of the P-site, the proximity of positions (-)3/(-)4 to rpS5(S7p) and h23b, (-)6/(-)7 to rpS14(S11p), and (-)8-(-)11 to the 3'-terminus of 18S rRNA (mRNA/rRNA elements forming the bacterial Shine-Dalgarno duplex) also resembles elements of the bacterial mRNA path. In addition to these striking parallels, differences between mRNA paths included the proximity in eukaryotic initiation complexes of positions (+)7/(+)8 to the central region of h28, (+)4/(+)5 to rpS15(S19p), and (-)6 and (-)7/(-)10 to eukaryote-specific rpS26 and rpS28, respectively. Moreover, we previously determined that eukaryotic initiation factor2alpha (eIF2alpha) contacts position (-)3, and now report that eIF3 interacts with positions (-)8-(-)17, forming an extension of the mRNA-binding channel that likely contributes to unique aspects of eukaryotic initiation.     

Modulation of eukaryotic mRNA stability via the cap-binding translation complex eIF4F

Decapping by Dcp1 in Saccharomyces cerevisiae is a key step in mRNA degradation. However, the cap also binds the eukaryotic initiation factor (eIF) complex 4F and its associated proteins. Characterisation of the relationship between decapping and interactions involving eIF4F is an essential step towards understanding polysome disassembly and mRNA decay. Three types of observation suggest how changes in the functional status of eIF4F modulate mRNA stability in vivo. First, partial disruption of the interaction between eIF4E and eIF4G, caused by mutations in eIF4E or the presence of the yeast 4E-binding protein p20, stabilised mRNAs. The interactions of eIF4G and p20 with eIF4E may therefore act to modulate the decapping process. Since we also show that the in vitro decapping rate is not directly affected by the nature of the body of the mRNA, this suggests that changes in eIF4F structure could play a role in triggering decapping during mRNA decay. Second, these effects were seen in the absence of extreme changes in global translation rates in the cell, and are therefore relevant to normal mRNA turnover. Third, a truncated form of eIF4E (Delta196) had a reduced capacity to inhibit Dcp1-mediated decapping in vitro, yet did not change cellular mRNA half-lives. Thus, the accessibility of the cap to Dcp1 in vivo is not simply controlled by competition with eIF4E, but is subject to switching between molecular states with different levels of access.     

Kinetic analysis of late steps of eukaryotic translation initiation

Little is known about the molecular mechanics of the late events of translation initiation in eukaryotes. We present a kinetic dissection of the transition from a preinitiation complex after start codon recognition to the final 80S initiation complex. The resulting framework reveals that eukaryotic initiation factor (eIF)5B actually accelerates the rate of ribosomal subunit joining, and this acceleration is influenced by the conformation of the GTPase active site of the factor mediated by the bound nucleotide. eIF1A accelerates joining through its C-terminal interaction with eIF5B, and eIF1A release from the initiating ribosome, which occurs only after subunit joining, is accelerated by GTP hydrolysis by eIF5B. Following subunit joining, GTP hydrolysis by eIF5B alters the conformation of the final initiation complex and clears a path to promote rapid release of eIF1A. Our data, coupled with previous work, indicate that eIF1A is present on the ribosome throughout the entire initiation process and plays key roles at every stage.     

Stepwise assembly of the eukaryotic translation initiation factor 2 complex

The eukaryotic translation initiation factor 2 (eIF2) has key functions in the initiation step of protein synthesis. eIF2 guides the initiator tRNA to the ribosome, participates in scanning of the mRNA molecule, supports selection of the start codon, and modulates the translation of mRNAs in response to stress. eIF2 comprises a heterotrimeric complex whose assembly depends on the ATP-grasp protein Cdc123. Mutations of the eIF2γ subunit that compromise eIF2 complex formation cause severe neurological disease in humans. To this date, however, details about the assembly mechanism, step order, and the individual functions of eIF2 subunits remain unclear. Here, we quantified assembly intermediates and studied the behavior of various binding site mutants in budding yeast. Based on these data, we present a model in which a Cdc123-mediated conformational change in eIF2γ exposes binding sites for eIF2α and eIF2β subunits. Contrary to an earlier hypothesis, we found that the associations of eIF2α and eIF2β with the γ-subunit are independent of each other, but the resulting heterodimers are nonfunctional and fail to bind the guanosine exchange factor eIF2B. In addition, levels of eIF2α influence the rate of eIF2 assembly. By binding to eIF2γ, eIF2α displaces Cdc123 and thereby completes the assembly process. Experiments in human cell culture indicate that the mechanism of eIF2 assembly is conserved between yeast and humans. This study sheds light on an essential step in eukaryotic translation initiation, the dysfunction of which is linked to human disease.     

Rapid 40S scanning and its regulation by mRNA structure during eukaryotic translation initiation

1. Download : Download high-res image (165KB)
2. Download : Download full-size image

     

Multidomain organization of eukaryotic guanine nucleotide exchange translation initiation factor eIF-2B subunits revealed by analysis of conserved sequence motifs.

Computer-assisted analysis of amino acid sequences using methods for database screening with individual sequences and with multiple alignment blocks reveals a complex multidomain organization of yeast proteins GCD6 and GCD1, and mammalian homolog of GCD6-subunits of the eukaryotic translation initiation factor eIF-2B involved in GDP/GTP exchange on eIF-2. It is shown that these proteins contain a putative nucleotide-binding domain related to a variety of nucleotidyltransferases, most of which are involved in nucleoside diphosphate-sugar formation in bacteria. Three conserved motifs, one of which appears to be a variant of the phosphate-binding site (P-loop) and another that may be considered a specific version of the Mg(2+)-binding site of NTP-utilizing enzymes, were identified in the nucleotidyltransferase-related domain. Together with the third unique motif adjacent to the the P-loop, these motifs comprise the signature of a new superfamily of nucleotide-binding domains. A domain consisting of hexapeptide amino acid repeats with a periodic distribution of bulky hydrophobic residues (isoleucine patch), which previously have been identified in bacterial acetyltransferases, is located toward the C-terminus from the nucleotidyltransferase-related domain. Finally, at the very C-termini of GCD6, eIF-2B epsilon, and two other eukaryotic translation initiation factors, eIF-4 gamma and eIF-5, there is a previously undetected, conserved domain. It is hypothesized that the nucleotidyltransferase-related domain is directly involved in the GDP/GTP exchange, whereas the C-terminal conserved domain may be involved in the interaction of eIF-2B, eIF-4 gamma, and eIF-5 with eIF-2.     

The mechanism of translation initiation on Aichivirus RNA mediated by a novel type of picornavirus IRES

Picornavirus mRNAs contain IRESs that sustain their translation during infection, when host protein synthesis is shut off. The major classes of picornavirus IRESs (Types 1 and 2) have distinct structures and sequences, but initiation on both is determined by their specific interaction with eIF4G. We report here that Aichivirus (AV), a member of the Kobuvirus genus of Picornaviridae, contains an IRES that differs structurally from Type 1 and Type 2 IRESs. Its function similarly involves interaction with eIF4G, but its eIF4G-interacting domain is structurally distinct, although it contains an apical eIF4G-interacting motif similar to that in Type 2 IRESs. Like Type 1 and Type 2 IRESs, AV IRES function is enhanced by pyrimidine tract-binding protein (PTB), but the pattern of PTB's interaction with each of these IRESs is distinct. Unlike all known IRESs, the AV IRES is absolutely dependent on DHX29, a requirement imposed by sequestration of its initiation codon in a stable hairpin.