一种生态建筑技术——自然通风

本文阐述了生态建筑中自然通风技术的原理与应用.风压与热压是形成自然通风的两种动力方式:风压是空气流受到阻挡时产生的静压,其作用效果与建筑物的形状等有关,在建筑物中产生伯努力效应和文丘里效应;热压是气温不同产生的压力差,它会使室内热空气升起逸散到室外而引起自然通风过程的烟囱效应;建筑物的通风效果往往是这两种方式综合作用的结果.文中引用了典型范例说明自然通风在生态建筑中应用情况,并在最后提出运用自然通风技术中要注意的问题.     

On the mound of Macrotermes michaelseni as an organ of respiratory gas exchange.

Patterns and rates of air movements in the mounds and nests of Macrotermes michaelseni were studied using tracer methods. Wind is a significant source of energy for powering nest ventilation, despite the mound being a completely enclosed structure. Nests are ventilated by a tidal movement of air driven by temporal variation in wind speed and wind direction. Density gradients sufficiently steep to drive bulk flow by natural convection will be rare. However, metabolism-induced buoyant forces may interact with wind energy in a way that promotes homeostasis of the mound atmosphere.     

Microhabitat and rhythmic behavior of tiger beetle Callytron yuasai okinawense larvae in a mangrove forest in Japan

Mangrove forests are regularly flooded by tides at intervals of approximately 12.4 h (tidal rhythm). Larvae of the tiger beetle Callytron yuasai okinawense in a mangrove forest made shallow burrows in mounds up to 1 m in height constructed by the mud lobster Thalassina anomala. No larval burrows were observed on the forest floor, which was very muddy even during low tide. Some larvae plugged the burrow openings before they were submerged at high tide. The mean interval between consecutive burrow plugging events was 12.37 h, which is similar to the period of tidal cycles. Nine out of 30 larvae plugged the burrow openings even when the burrows did not become submerged. Plugging behavior may be governed by an endogenous biological clock, or may be a response to exogenous information about tidal level (e.g. moisture seeping through the ground).     

A modern analogue for the trace fossil Gyrolithes: burrows of the thalassinidean shrimp Axianassa australis

The tidal flats at Praia do Araça, Brazil have muddy siliciclastic sediments on the surface and a layer of heavily packed shells down to 30–40 cm depth. The most obvious element of the infauna is the thalassinidean shrimp Axianassa australis. Several animals were captured with a yabby pump. Burrow openings were characterized by a low mound (1-2 cm high and 10–30 cm in diameter at the base) with one or two simple holes nearby (20-70 cm away). Counts along two transects showed a mean density of Axianassa burrow openings of 1.4 m⁻² (range: 0–7), mounds ranged in density from 0 to 3 m⁻² (mean 1.25). Three nearly complete (and several incomplete) resin casts showed a unique burrow shape, with spiral shafts leading to wide horizontal galleries from which several evenly proportioned corkscrew-shaped spirals branched off, leading to further horizontal galleries at greater sediment depths. Burrows had up to 15 such spirals and a total length of over 8 m. The total burrow depth was between 106 and 130 cm. The role of the spirals and the similarity of Axianassa burrows to the trace fossil Gyrolithes are discussed.     

城市主城区立体模型的构建与风环境模拟——以广州主城区为例

以22 km×21 km的广州主城区为例,以40 m建筑间距作为风道宽度低限、用容积高度对建筑高度赋值和垂向拔高为建模特色,概括构建了城市尺度的立体模型。在此基础上,分别模拟了广州主城区中性流条件下,弱风（2 m/s）和强风（5 m/s）、近地面10、25、50 m三个高度的风环境。模拟表明：来流5 m/s下主城区存在不同风速等级、不同平面形态以及不同高度面的风道;白云山、珠江新城等面积较大的地形或建筑高地形成了减速明显的背风区条带,并相互组合形成了重要的风口和具有较高基面的强风道;在不同高度上主城区风速均由周边向城市中心降低;风道风速强烈地依赖于风道走向,风道风速与走向夹角呈三次函数递减,两者拟合优度R²为0.512。模拟结果很好地呈现了城市尺度宏观地形白云山和建筑密集区相互间的作用,反映了城市尺度模型构建与模拟的优势。     

Sound transmission and burrow characteristics of the subterranean rodentCtenomys talarum (Rodentia: Ctenomyidae)

Males of tuco-tucoCtenomys talarum Thomas, 1898 use particular burrow’s entrances to emit their territorial vocalization. Therefore we studied the internal structure of these entrances and the possible effect on the emission and propagation of airborne sounds. Externally, the burrow entrances used by tuco-tucos males to vocalize were characterized by the absence of sand mounds around their openings. Internally, most of the burrow’s entrances consisted of a main, relatively straight, tunnel of 30–40 cm length, with a diameter of 5.7–6.4 cm. After passing through the burrow’s entrance, the low-frequency components of an artificial signal played back inside the tunnel were not only less attenuated but also amplified (measured at 10–30 cm from the burrow opening). Therefore, the emission of territorial vocalizations inside the particular burrow’s entrances may be considered as a complex adaptative behavior, in which burrow structure improves the signal emission and propagation. Moreover, this work also showed thatC. talarum’s territorial vocalization seems to be adequate for long, inter-burrow communication, since its physical characteristics (high amplitude and low main frequency) are concomitant with the frequencies that are better transmitted in the natural habitat of this species of subterranean rodent.     

Burrow architecture and digging activity in the Cape dune mole rat

While females are traditionally thought to invest more time and energy into parental care than males, males often invest more resources into searching and displaying for mates, obtaining mates and in male–male conflict. Solitary subterranean mammals perform these activities in a particularly challenging niche, necessitating energetically expensive burrowing to both search for mates and forage for food. This restriction presumably affects males more than females as the former are thought to dig longer tunnels that cover greater distances to search for females. We excavated burrow systems of male and female Cape dune mole rats Bathyergus suillus the, largest truly subterranean mammal, to investigate whether male burrows differ from those of females in ways that reflect mate searching by males. We consider burrow architecture (length, internal dimensions, fractal dimension of tunnel systems, number of nesting chambers and mole mounds on the surface) in relation to mating strategy. Males excavated significantly longer burrow systems with higher fractal dimensions and larger burrow areas than females. Male burrow systems were also significantly farther from one another than females were from other females' burrow systems. However, no sex differences were evident in tunnel cross-sectional area, mass of soil excavated per mound, number of mounds produced per unit burrow length or mass of soil excavated per burrow system. Hence, while males may use their habitat differently from females, they do not appear to differ in the dimensions of the tunnels they create. Thus, exploration and use of the habitat differs between the sexes, which may be a consequence of sex differences in mating behaviour and greater demands for food.     

Ventilation of termite mounds: new results require a new model

In 1955, Lüscher proposed a ventilation mechanism forcathedral-shaped termite mounds to exchange respiratory gases. This mechanism was generally accepted, although it had neverbeen tested critically. We tested this mechanism by investigatingtemperatures, CO₂ concentrations, and air currents in and aroundtwo types of Macrotermes bellicosus mounds: cathedral-shapedmounds with many ridges and thin walls located in the savannaand dome-shaped mounds without ridges and with thick wallsin the forest. These two mound shapes have two different mechanismsof ventilation, depending on the environmental temperature.In the savanna during the day, sun heats the air in the peripheralair channels inside the ridges of the mound above the centralnest temperatures and produces a temperature gradient in theperipheral air channels with decreased temperatures at thetop of the mound. This temperature gradient leads to convectioncurrents with air rising inside the air channels of the ridgesto the top of the mound, meanwhile exchanging CO₂. In contrast,in the savanna during the night and generally in the forest,the temperatures inside the air channels are lower than thoseof the central nest, and no air currents rising upward insidethe air channels were detected. The CO₂ concentrations in theair channels of savanna mounds at night and forest mounds ingeneral were higher than during the day in the savanna. Therefore,our data do not support Lüscher's proposed mechanism.     

Factors affecting female parental investment in the monogamous goby, Valenciennea longipinnis

Female Valenciennea longipinnis construct a conspicuous rubble mound on a burrow after spawning while the paired male tends eggs in the burrow until hatching occurs. The mound has a function of promoting water-exchange in the burrow through hydrodynamic effects, contributing to prevention of the male egg-desertion by reducing his parental costs. Although higher mounds are more effective in water exchange, they cost females much work after spawning. In this study, I investigated effects of six ecological and environmental factors on the mound height, i.e., female parental investment. Multiple regression analysis indicated that only female body size could explain the female parental investment: larger females tended to construct higher mounds. The size-assortative mound building suggests that the females strive to construct mounds as high as they can irrespective of the other ecological and environmental factors. Because current strength and oozing of underground water fluctuated even in a day, females may be obliged to construct high mounds on the basis of the worst condition.     

Heterocarpy diversifies diaspore propagation of the desert shrub Ammopiptanthus mongolicus

In the desert, plant diaspore spreading usually relies on both external vectors, such as wind, and internal factors, such as diaspore shape. Ammopiptanthus mongolicus is a heterocarpous shrub species in the cold desert in northwest China. Mature pods may have dehisced or not yet dehisced when abscising, and the dehiscent pods may be twisted or flattened. The propagation distances of diaspores might vary due to differences in their buoyancies in upward air and ground friction according to pod shape. The wind tunnel experiments were conducted to measure the horizontal displacement upon fruit dropping (D1) and the wind-blown distance traveled by a fallen pod (D2) of A. mongolicus. A generalized linear mixed model and generalized linear model were used to test the effects of pod shape, release height, wind speed and ground substrate type on the spread distance of pods. D1 is jointly determined by the effects of release height and pod shape. Wind speed, pod shape and ground substrate type together affect D2. A twisted pod has higher dispersibility than a flat pod, and dehiscent pods spread further than indehiscent ones. The positive correlation of D1 and D2 indicates that the difference in pod shape additively broadens the range of seed-spreading distance. Differential seed-spreading properties could be adaptively advantageous to disperse the risks associated with diasporic dissemination compared with the maintenance of a single optimal dissemination characteristic. Thus, heterodiaspory is an advantageous adaptive characteristic for seed spreading in the windy, arid and harsh desert environment.     

Spatial variability and abiotic determinants of termite mounds throughout a savanna catchment

Termite mounds contribute to the spatial heterogeneity of ecological processes in many savannas, but the underlying patterns and determinants of mound distributions remain poorly understood. Using the Carnegie Airborne Observatory (CAO), we mapped the distribution of termite mounds across a rainfall gradient within a river catchment (～ 27 000 ha) of the Kruger National Park, South Africa. We assessed how different factors were associated with the distribution and height of termite mounds at three spatial scales: the entire catchment, among three broad vegetation types, and on individual hillslope crests. Abiotic factors such as the underlying geology and mean annual precipitation shaped mound densities at broad scales, while local hillslope morphology strongly influenced mound distribution at finer scales, emphasising the importance of spatial scale when assessing mound densities. Fire return period had no apparent association with mound densities or height. Mound density averaged 0.46 mounds ha^?1, and exhibited a clustered pattern throughout the landscape, occurring at relatively high densities (up to 2 mounds ha^?1) on crests, which are nutrient‐poor elements of the landscape. Mounds exhibited significant over‐dispersion (even spacing) at scales below 60 m so that evenly spaced aggregations of termite mounds are embedded within a landscape of varying mound densities. The tallest mounds were found in dry savanna (500 mm yr^?1) and were positively correlated with mound density, suggesting that dry granitic savannas are ideal habitat for mound‐building termites. Mound activity status also varied significantly across the rainfall gradient, with a higher proportion of active (live) mounds in the drier sites. The differential spacing of mounds across landscapes provides essential nutrient hotspots in crest locations, potentially sustaining species that would otherwise not persist. The contribution to biodiversity and ecosystem functioning that mounds provide is not uniform throughout landscapes, but varies considerably with spatial scale and context.     

The pineal body: Site of extraocular perception of celestial cues for orientation in the tiger salamander (Ambystoma tigrinum)

Summary Tiger salamanders (Ambystoma tigrinum) trained to orient in a particular compass direction under the sun fail to orient in the trained direction if they are (i) eyeless and simultaneously have the brain covered with opaque plastic or are (ii) eyeless and pinealectomized (Fig. 1–2, Table 1). Salamanders with either the eyes or the pineal intact and unobstructed continue to orient in the trained direction. These data strongly support the hypothesis that the pineal body is an effective extraocular photoreceptor (EOP) for compass orientation in tiger salamanders.We thank M.P. Farrell for developing computer programs for data analysis. B. Bailey and R. Walton helped conduct tests. Financial support was provided for separate phases of this research by a Biomedical Science Support Grant (NIH FR 07033-05) and NSFgrants GB-30647 and BMS 75-18693 to K. Adler and an Indiana Academy of Science Research Grant, a postdoctoral fellowship (NSF GU-2058), a Miami University Research Grant and an NSF grant (GB-41102) to D.H. Taylor.     

塔里木沙漠公路灌木固沙带的防护效应

有关湿润区[5] 与半干旱区和干旱区半荒漠带防风固沙片状植被[1～ 4 ] 以及干旱半干旱区乔木防护林带[6～ 9] 防护效益的研究报道较多 ,但极端干旱区灌木固沙带防护效应的报道则很少。为此 ,我们根据塔里木沙漠公路Ｌ2 89～ 2 92 段 3ｋｍ植物固沙示范段的试验观测 ,对极端干旱区灌木固沙带的防护效应做一探讨。1　研究地区与方法1 1　灌木固沙带栽植地段概况塔里木沙漠公路Ｌ2 89～ 2 92 段 3ｋｍ植物固沙示范段地处塔克拉玛干沙漠腹地的中三点处 (Ｎ39°0 1′ ,Ｅ83°36′)。风沙地貌属复合型纵向沙垄。据中三点1995年 6月～ 1996年 5月气…     

Intertidal burrows of the air-breathing eel goby, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Odontamblyopus lacepedii</Emphasis> (Gobiidae: Amblyopinae)

Odontamblyopus lacepedii inhabits burrows in mudflats and breathes air at the surface opening. Investigations of the intertidal burrows using resin casting demonstrated a highly branched burrow system. The burrows are composed primarily of branching patterns of interconnected tunnels and shafts that communicate into two to seven surface openings. Bulbous chambers (i.e., dilated portions of the burrow) at branching sections of the tunnels or shafts are common features of the burrow. The presence of these chambers accords the fish adequate space to maneuver inside the burrow, and thus constant access to the surface. The combination of all burrow characteristics and previously reported variability in air breathing patterns are ostensibly of selective value for aerial predator avoidance during air breathing in O. lacepedii.     

广州市主城区城市地形类型与风环境评价

对城市地形组合类型及其地形对风场影响的研究,有助于城市风场机理的认识与生态环境的优化。以高层建筑密集的广州市主城区为例,在确定城市宏观地形类型的基础上,基于最小成本路径（LCP）辨识了风道,并对风环境质量进行评价。主要结论有：（1）将城市地形简要概括划分为4个一级地形、11个二级地形类型。（2）以LCP路径与盛行风交角不超过22.5°的标准,筛选确定通风路径作为风道。根据LCP格网的密度与频次,结合不同风向下风速与风频,评价分析了风环境类型与空间分布。（3）根据自然与城市地形的配置,北风风环境质量远高于西北风和东风;东风由于风频与风速最低,因此通风条件较差。（4）珠江航道在三种风向下都是尺度最宽贯穿城市最好的风道;区域性的风道与风环境较好的地段集中在与主风向平行的主干道上,但以近似南北走向的居多;由于广州城市地形高度以珠江新城峰林为中心向外递减,以低地地形为主的主城区外围通风优于中心区域,特别是珠江新城峰林与网络状台地为主的老城区,通风环境较差。基于LCP的评价结果需要同其他方法相互验证,才能使其不断完善优化。     

Kangaroo Rats Remodel Burrows in Response to Seasonal Changes in Environmental Conditions

Burrow architecture enhances important animal functions such as food storage, predator avoidance, and thermoregulation. Occupants may be able to maximize fitness by remodeling burrows in response to seasonal changes in climate and predation risk. My objective was to examine how banner‐tailed kangaroo rats (Dipodomys spectabilis) modify the number of burrow entrances in response to seasonal conditions. For 3 yr, I monitored fluctuations in number of burrow entrances in kangaroo rat mounds. Individual kangaroo rats continually remodeled mounds in response to seasonal conditions. Compared to summer, mounds in winter had approximately 50% fewer entrances and plugged entrances were common. Monthly differences in number of entrances were closely linked with seasonal changes in soil temperature and precipitation. Number of entrances decreased as soil temperature and precipitation declined. Changes in burrow entrances likely reflect seasonal differences in the relative importance of burrow functions. Fewer burrow entrances during winter would create a warmer microclimate by reducing convective heat loss in mounds, resulting in thermoregulatory savings for occupants. During the summer, thermoregulatory costs of kangaroo rats are low, but risk of seed cache spoilage and predation from snakes increases. Adding burrow entrances after large summer rainfall events would increase the evaporation rate within mounds, reducing spoilage of seed caches. More burrow entrances would also reduce predation risk in the summer by providing additional escape routes.     

On the mechanism of air ventilaton in anabantoids (Pisces: Teleostei)

Summary Air ventilation in most Anabantoid species is diphasic, consisting of exhalation and inhalation. Exhalation is the release of air from the accessory breathing organs (suprabranchial chambers) through the mouth either into the water near the surface (e.g.,Ctenopoma) or directly into the atmosphere (e.g.,Osphronemus goramy). Inhalation, i.e., taking in fresh air through the mouth at the surface, immediately follows exhalation. X-ray films show (Figs. 5 and 6) that evacuation of the suprabranchial chambers during exhalation is total or nearly total. This, together with the fact that these chambers can contract at most to a very small extent, led to the conclusion that gas is replaced by water entering the chambers during exhalation and that this water is replaced by fresh air during inhalation. Further analysis of films, including conventional films showing the behavior of the opercular apparatus during air ventilation (Fig. 7), leads to a theory of a double-pumping mechanism responsible for air ventilation. This mechanism consists of the buccal apparatus and the opercular apparatus. It is suggested that both of these structures are able to act as both suction and pressure pumps, and thus air ventilation may be explained as the result of alternating activity of these two pumps.In the monophasic air ventilation characteristic of (adult)Anabas testudineus, there is no exhalation phase comparable to that of other Anabantoids. Therefore, no water enters the suprabranchial chambers, which remain filled with gas during the whole ventilation process (Fig. 10). Ventilation is limited to one phase comparable to inhalation in other Anabantoids.The structure of the accessory breathing organs (Fig. 1) and its progressive complication with growth (Fig. 4) were studied inOsphronemus goramy. The arrangement of the labyrinthine plates is in accordance with the requirements of transport of water and gas through the suprabranchial chambers. One plate (the inner plate, Fig. 1) separates these chambers into atrium, ventro-caudal, and dorso-caudal compartments, each with its own opening (valve). This organization seems essential for the transport of gas and water through the suprabranchial chambers and ensures that during exhalation, water flows into the chambers from above, so that while water is filling these chambers displaced gas can be sucked through the deep-lying pharyngeal openings into the expanding buccal cavity.Supported by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft     

Laboratory observations on the burrowing of the snake blenny, Lumpenus lampretaeformis (Walbaum), in soft sediment

The Lumpenus lampretaeformis used in this study were caught on soft sediments in Irvine Bay and Ardmucknish Bay (West Coast of Scotland). In aquaria the fish is capable of constructing and maintaining its own burrow in soft sediments. The burrow has a'Y'configuration which may be made complex by the construction of additional tunnels as the original system begins to decay. The cross sections of these burrows are distinctive in that they have an oval shape in the main tunnel and a rounded cross section in the subsidiary (side) tunnel. Burrowing can be relatively rapid, a burrow with three entrances being constructed within 12 h.     

Burrow morphology and dynamics of mudshrimp in Asian soft shores

Mudshrimps are important soft shore bioturbators but research on the ecology of tropical species has received less attention when compared with their temperate counterparts. The mudshrimp Austinogebia edulis is common on Asian soft shores and lives in burrows for its entire adult life. Epoxy resin casting of A. edulis burrows showed that they were approximately Y-shaped, with an upper U-part and the lower central shaft part. The burrows had two openings extending to the surface; the mean distance between the two openings was 11.0 cm in Hong Kong and 26.4 cm in Taiwan. Openings of the burrows had small chimneys. The tunnels of the burrows were circular, narrow and with a smooth surface (tunnel diameter corresponded to shrimp carapace width). Each burrow was inhabited by a single shrimp and burrows were inter-connected during the mating and reproductive season. Each burrow had four to 12 spherical chambers, which were free of detritus. The chambers were thought to be used for suspension feeding, current generation and as turning points. The depth of burrows was up to 1.1 m. Multivariate analysis on various burrow parameters showed that burrows collected on a mud flat in Taiwan were deeper, had a wider distance between the openings and a larger volume than burrows collected from a sandy shore in Hong Kong, suggesting that burrow architecture is variable between shore types. Burrow architecture, however, did not vary between tidal levels, seasons and shrimp density on the shores in Hong Kong, indicating that the burrows were quite stable within the substratum and were not affected by environmental and biological factors.     

Spectral mechanisms of the compound eye in the fireflyPhotinus pyralis (Coleoptera: Lampyridae)

Summary Electroretinograms (ERG) were recorded from dark- and chromatic-adapted compound eyes in the dusk-active firefly,Photinus pyralis , at different wavelengths ranging from 320 to 700 run and over 4.5 log units change in stimulus intensity. ERG waveforms differed in the short (near-UV and violet) and long (yellow) wavelengths (Fig. 1). Waveform differences were quantitated by analysis of rise and fall times as a function of the amplitude of the response. Rise times were found to be relatively constant for all stimulus wavelengths. However, variations in the fall times were detected and followed characteristically different functions for short and long wavelengths (Fig. 2).No significant differences in the slopes of the Vlog-I curves at different stimulus wavelengths were observed (Fig. 3).Spectral sensitivity curves obtained from the ventral sector in dark- and chromatic-adapted conditions revealed peaks in the short ( max 400 nm: Fig. 4; max 430 nm: Fig. 5 A; and max 380 nm; Fig. 5B) and long ( max 570 nm: Figs. 4, 5) wavelengths, suggesting the presence of two spectral mechanisms. The long wavelength (yellow) mechanism was in close tune with the species bioluminescence emission spectrum (Fig. 4B).This investigation was supported in part by NIH Research Grant # EY-00490 (to R.M.C.); Research Grant # 01794N from the Research Foundation of the City University of New York (to A.B.L.); NIGMS Training Grant #1 TO 2 GM 05010-01 MARC (to J.A.H.); and NSF Grant # HES-75-09824 (to C.O.T.). We thank Tom Jensen for technical assistance, Barry Schuttler for his courtesy in allowing us to collect fireflies at his farm, Jean Lall for editorial assistance, and the two anonymous referees whose comments added considerably to the quality of this paper.