Macrofungal diversity and ecology in two Mediterranean forest ecosystems

The macrofungal species richness and community assemblages in Italian native woodlands of oaks and Carpinus betulus and non-native woodlands of Pinus spp., Cupressus sempervirens and Eucalyptus camaldulensis were examined through the collection of basidiomata and ascomata over 1 year. The sampling in Collestrada (Umbria) and Pizzo Manolfo (Sicily) forests revealed 216 species of macrofungi. The results indicate differences in macromycete richness and diversity patterns between the two sites. The dominant tree species of the two sites were different; thus, the Collestrada forests had higher mycorrhizal species richness, while the Pizzo Manolfo forest had a higher relative number of saprotroph macrofungi. The macrofungal community of Quercus frainetto woodland from Collestrada forest was richer and more diverse than the other site's woodland types. This study highlighted that both Collestrada and Pizzo Manolfo forests provide a habitat for diverse macrofungal species, not in the least ectomycorrhizal species.     

Cryptogam communities on decaying deciduous wood – does tree species diversity matter?

Bryophyte and fungal communities were investigated on fallen trees representing seven deciduous tree species in a mixed near natural nemoral forest. Bryophytes were represented by 41 taxa, including several very frequent species. Of the 296 fungal species, most were recorded with very low frequency and the share of high frequent species was much lower than among the bryophytes. Species turnover was bigger in the fungal communities, compared to the bryophyte communities, and related to a higher extent to measured differences in environmental conditions. Tree species diversity was found to be an important factor for fungal species composition, while only small differences in bryophyte species composition were found between the different tree species. On the other hand bryophyte species richness showed distinct relations to tree species and microclimatic variables, a tendency which was not evident for fungal diversity. It is concluded that the two organism groups to some extent differ in their conservation demands. Thus, conservation of wood-inhabiting bryophytes requires prioritising of large, coherent forest stands in which a stable humid microclimate and a reasonable supply of dead wood is secured. Successful conservation of fungi requires that substantial amounts of dead wood are left for natural decay in a variety of natural forest environments representing different tree species, so that heterogeneity in dead wood types is secured.     

大小兴安岭针叶树倒木上木腐真菌的物种多样性

木腐真菌在森林生态系统中具有丰富的物种多样性, 并在倒木的降解过程中发挥重要的生态功能。针叶树是大小兴安岭森林生态系统的优势树种, 因此研究针叶树倒木木腐真菌物种多样性和影响其物种分布的相关环境因子有助于揭示大小兴安岭森林生态系统物质循环的机理。本研究收集了近16年对大小兴安岭地区冷杉属(Abies)、落叶松属(Larix)、云杉属(Picea)和松属(Pinus) 4类针叶树倒木上1,561份木腐真菌标本的采集信息, 统计了物种种类及其腐朽类型, 并选取具有代表性的地点开展木腐真菌群落多样性及其与环境因子的相关性分析。结果显示, 大小兴安岭针叶树倒木木腐真菌有166种, 隶属于70属, 其中白腐真菌有111种, 占所有种类的66.9%, 褐腐真菌为55种, 占所有种类的33.1%。在4类针叶树倒木上均能生长的真菌种类有19种, 占所有种类的11.5%, 其中柔丝干酪孔菌(Oligoporus sericeomollis)是各类倒木上木腐真菌群落中的优势种。大兴安岭地区落叶松属为优势寄主, 其倒木上生长的木腐真菌种类数和个体数在4类倒木中均为最高; 而小兴安岭地区松属倒木上木腐真菌种类数和个体数比其他3类倒木高, 是该地区的优势寄主。对6个代表性地区木腐真菌群落的研究显示, 有11种真菌在6个地区均有分布, 小兴安岭地区木腐真菌多样性普遍高于大兴安岭地区; 聚类分析显示树种比地理位置对木腐真菌物种分布的影响更大。     

Arbuscular mycorrhizal communities in tropical forests are affected by host tree species and environment

Arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi are mutualists with plant roots that are proposed to enhance plant community diversity. Models indicate that AM fungal communities could maintain plant diversity in forests if functionally different communities are spatially separated. In this study we assess the spatial and temporal distribution of the AM fungal community in a wet tropical rainforest in Costa Rica. We test whether distinct fungal communities correlate with variation in tree life history characteristics, with host tree species, and the relative importance of soil type, seasonality and rainfall. Host tree species differ in their associated AM fungal communities, but differences in the AM community between hosts could not be generalized over life history groupings of hosts. Changes in the relative abundance of a few common AM fungal species were the cause of differences in AM fungal communities for different host tree species instead of differences in the presence and absence of AM fungal species. Thus, AM fungal communities are spatially distinguishable in the forest, even though all species are widespread. Soil fertility ranging between 5 and 9 Mg/ha phosphorus did not affect composition of AM fungal communities, although sporulation was more abundant in lower fertility soils. Sampling soils over seasons revealed that some AM fungal species sporulate profusely in the dry season compared to the rainy season. On one host tree species sampled at two sites with vastly different rainfall, relative abundance of spores from Acaulospora was lower and that of Glomus was relatively higher at the site with lower and more seasonal rainfall.     

海南热带雨林国家公园不同植被类型的大型真菌多样性

为揭示海南热带雨林国家公园大型真菌多样性及不同植被类型对真菌群落的影响, 本研究于2020年和2021年湿季对海南热带雨林国家公园内7个管理局辖区开展了大型真菌多样性调查, 比较了不同植被类型(山地雨林、低地雨林、低地雨林次生林、人工林)的大型真菌生活型(共生型、腐生型)组成差异。从设置的58条1 km长的样带内采集到1,869份子实体标本, 根据子实体形态与ITS rDNA序列分析, 从中鉴定出562种真菌, 涉及17目64科174属, 其中80%以上的物种由伞菌目、牛肝菌目、红菇目、多孔菌目、鸡油菌目、锈革孔菌目和炭角菌目构成。大型真菌的营养型以腐生型(占48.2%物种)和共生型(44.8%)为主。每条样带的平均物种丰富度和多度以中海拔的山地雨林最高, 分别为28 ± 5种和33 ± 6个, 而人工林最低, 分别为11 ± 1种和11 ± 2个。植被类型主要影响共生型大型真菌物种丰富度(P = 0.026)和子实体多度(P = 0.019)及Shannon-Wiener多样性(P = 0.028), 但对腐生型大型真菌的影响并不显著。多响应置换过程(multiple response permutation procedure, MRPP)检验结果表明, 不同植被类型对共生型与腐生型大型真菌群落物种组成均有显著影响(腐生型: P = 0.004, 共生型: P = 0.041)。冗余分析(redundancy analysis, RDA)的结果表明, 植被类型对腐生型和共生型真菌群落物种组成差异的解释度均较低(共生型: R² = 0.068, P = 0.004; 腐生型: R² = 0.067, P = 0.004)。海拔仅对腐生型真菌群落物种组成产生微弱影响(R² = 0.029, P = 0.001), 而对共生型真菌影响不显著(R² = 0.024, P = 0.072)。在不同保护地之间, 共生型(R² = 0.148, P = 0.001)与腐生型(R² = 0.123, P = 0.002)真菌物种组成均具显著差异; 基于样带‒真菌矩阵的网络图显示, 海南热带雨林国家公园内尖峰岭、霸王岭、五指山等国家级自然保护区的山地雨林是共生型大型真菌多样性较高区域, 应作为共生型真菌与宿主的优先保护区域。     

Community Turnover of Wood-Inhabiting Fungi across Hierarchical Spatial Scales

For efficient use of conservation resources it is important to determine how species diversity changes across spatial scales. In many poorly known species groups little is known about at which spatial scales the conservation efforts should be focused. Here we examined how the community turnover of wood-inhabiting fungi is realised at three hierarchical levels, and how much of community variation is explained by variation in resource composition and spatial proximity. The hierarchical study design consisted of management type (fixed factor), forest site (random factor, nested within management type) and study plots (randomly placed plots within each study site). To examine how species richness varied across the three hierarchical scales, randomized species accumulation curves and additive partitioning of species richness were applied. To analyse variation in wood-inhabiting species and dead wood composition at each scale, linear and Permanova modelling approaches were used. Wood-inhabiting fungal communities were dominated by rare and infrequent species. The similarity of fungal communities was higher within sites and within management categories than among sites or between the two management categories, and it decreased with increasing distance among the sampling plots and with decreasing similarity of dead wood resources. However, only a small part of community variation could be explained by these factors. The species present in managed forests were in a large extent a subset of those species present in natural forests. Our results suggest that in particular the protection of rare species requires a large total area. As managed forests have only little additional value complementing the diversity of natural forests, the conservation of natural forests is the key to ecologically effective conservation. As the dissimilarity of fungal communities increases with distance, the conserved natural forest sites should be broadly distributed in space, yet the individual conserved areas should be large enough to ensure local persistence.     

Diversity of the order Lepidoptera (Hesperioidea and Papilionoidea) from Corrientes city, Argentina

Urbanization is one of the most important threats for biodiversity. Among many different organisms, butterflies are useful indicators of environment diversity and quality. The aim of this study was to investigate the Lepidoptera from Corrientes city. Random samplings were performed at two sites: a native forest situated in Santa Catalina district and an urban area, Parque Mitre. The captures were carried out using entomological nets, at four seasons between January to October 2007. A total of 1 114 butterflies, represented by six families: Hesperiidae, Lycaenidae, Nymphalidae, Papilionidae, Pieridae and Riodinidae and 18 subfamilies were recorded. Fifty-nine genera and 75 species were identified; Anartia jatrophae jatrophae was the most abundant species at both localities. This species and Urbanus procne, Phoebis sennae marcellina, Pyrgus orcus and Dryas iulia alcionea were, among other seven, captured at all months. Highest values of abundance were registered during the warmest seasons. Santa Catalina presented the largest abundance (n = 701), richness (S = 74) and diversity (H' = 3.87). A total of 413 individuals and 52 species were identified at Parque Mitre, and Shannon diversity index was 3.58. The obtained data reveals a high species richness and similarity at both sites.     

松材线虫侵袭引发的植被演替对鸟类群落的影响

松材线虫(Bursaphelenchusxylophilus)是引起严重森林病害的外来物种,可能导致森林生态系统急剧退化。为了探讨在松材线虫侵袭所引起的森林演替过程中植被结构变化对鸟类群落的影响,我们研究了这些常绿阔叶演替林中的鸟类群落结构。2004年5–6月,我们在浙江省宁波市选择了分别处于3个不同演替阶段的7个样地:包括象山县被松材线虫侵袭5年后的常绿阔叶灌丛和侵袭12年后的常绿阔叶林样地各3个,同时在天童国家级森林公园选择了约40龄的常绿阔叶林样地1个。结果显示,在常绿阔叶灌丛和松材线虫侵袭12年后的常绿阔叶林中,鸟类物种多样性和丰富度均显著高于约40龄常绿阔叶林;3类栖息地的鸟类多度、均匀度均无显著差异;在侵袭12年后的常绿阔叶林中鸟类群落最丰富。多元回归分析结果显示,立地年龄是影响鸟类群落组成的主要因素。     

丰林国家级自然保护区木腐真菌多样性与寄主倒木的关系

木腐真菌是一类以木材为生长基质的大型真菌, 通过分泌各种水解酶全部或部分降解木材中的木质素、纤维素和半纤维素, 促进森林生态系统的物质循环, 具有重要的生态功能。本研究调查了丰林国家级自然保护区固定样地中木腐真菌的多样性和倒木特征, 并进行了木腐真菌的物种多样性和数量与倒木的种类、数量、腐朽程度、直径大小等的相关性分析。结果显示: 在样地内共采集木腐真菌标本295份, 经鉴定为93种, Shannon多样性指数为3.86, Simpson指数为0.96。相关性分析发现木腐真菌的数量和种类与直径为2-5 cm和5-10 cm的倒木、2级腐烂的倒木和红松倒木均显著相关。样地中优势倒木寄主分别为槭属(Acer)、榛属(Corylus)、云杉属(Picea)和松属(Pinus), 这4类倒木上生长的木腐真菌种类组成具有明显的差异, 槭属和榛属倒木上的共有优势种主要是三色拟迷孔菌(Daedaleopsis tricolor)、云芝(Trametes versicolor)和桦附毛孔菌(Trichaptum pargamenum), 而松属和云杉属的共有优势种主要有白囊耙齿菌(Irpex lacteus)、云芝、冷杉附毛孔菌(Trichaptum abietinum)和褐紫附毛孔菌(T. fuscoviolaceum)。倒木产生真菌子实体的概率研究表明, 同一类寄主倒木上发生木腐真菌子实体的概率在调查面积增加到0.36 ha后趋于一个定值, 松属倒木中仅有10.2%产生真菌子实体, 槭属和云杉属分别是12.9%和13.4%, 榛属最高, 达到53.7%。本研究结果对于预测森林生态系统中木腐真菌的发生具有重要理论意义。     

长白山北坡不同海拔及干扰程度下访花食蚜蝇群落的差异

本研究采用垂直面取样法,对中国长白山北坡不同海拔及干扰程度下访花食蚜蝇群落的物种组成、多度、丰富度及多样性进行了调查研究。我们选择了不同垂直带的两个样地,分别位于800~1 100 m和1 750 ~2 150 m;每个样地选取3种生境类型,每一生境类型采样面积为20 m×20 m。252组调查数据表明,共采到访花食蚜蝇42种2 540个体。不同海拔生境访花食蚜蝇的组成、多度、丰富度及多样性的差异分析结果表明: 低海拔样地内不同生境访花食蚜蝇的群落相似性高于高海拔样地;低海拔样地访花食蚜蝇的多度高于高海拔样地,而物种丰富度低于高海拔样地;不同生境类型访花食蚜蝇多样性指数存在差异,但高海拔样地与低海拔样地多样性差异不显著;过渡林生境（岳桦林带）与次生林生境（针阔混交林带Ⅱ）中访花食蚜蝇的多样性较高。保护珍稀植物物种的人工植物花园访花食蚜蝇多样性仅次于过渡林生境（岳桦林带）与次生林生境（针阔混交林带Ⅱ）,保护作用显著。     

Environment heterogeneity and seasonal effects in ground-dwelling ant (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) assemblages in the Parque Estadual do Rio Doce, MG, Brazil

This work aimed to explore the response of ant species assemblage to contrasting types of forests in a semideciduous stationary rainforest, in the Parque Estadual do Rio Doce, South Eastern Brazil. We compared antropomorphic borders of this park and natural ecotones, such as lake margins continuous with forests, as well as preserved forests far from ecotones. We investigated whether ground-dwelling ant species richness, abundance and composition would change according to forest types and ecotones. We expected greater species richness in interior tall forest, compared with low forest or ecotone habitats. In addition, we tested the effect of climate seasonality on ant assemblages found in each studied vegetation type. Each forest type was surveyed based on a minimum transect sampling unit of 150 m long summing up 30 pit-falls per unit. Two sampling events, one in dry season (September of 2001) and another in the rainy season (January of 2002) were performed. For both seasons, tall forest presented greater total number of ant species, however lower mean ant species and abundance per trap than other forest types, thus corroborating the prediction that ecotones might present high alpha diversity. Mean species richness and abundance did not differ between interior low forest and lake edge, or between these habitats and reserve border. In general, species composition were not clearly defined by forest types. Results here found suggest that species loss or community dominance by generalist species, eventually due to deforestation, is probably a much greater problem than previously thought. However, to understand patterns of insect species diversity and distribution in tropical ecosystem should be taken in account much more comprehensive, spatially explicit sampling designs.     

Diversity of medium and large mammals in the Loka Abaya National Park,southern Ethiopia

We evaluated the richness, diversity, and composition of the medium and large mammal community in the Loka Abaya National Park (LANP), southern Ethiopia, and how these parameters differ among four habitat types: wooded grassland, riverine forest, hilly scrubland and wetland, and between seasons. We recorded a total of 2,573 individual animals of 28 medium and large mammal species in the park. This included three globally threatened species: the endangered African wild dog (Lycaon pictus), the vulnerable Leopard (Panthera pardus), and Hippopotamus (Hippopothamus amphibius). Season had little effect on species richness, diversity, and composition both across and within habitat types. However, species richness across seasons was significantly different among the four habitat types, in the declining order of the following: wooded grassland > riverine forest > hilly scrubland > wetland. The strongest similarity in species composition, both across and within seasons, was found between wooded grassland and riverine forest. In terms of relative abundance, mammal assemblage of the wooded grassland and wetland habitats had more evenly distributed number of species with different relative abundance categories. Overall, Anubis Baboon (Papio anubis), Grivet Monkey (Chlorocebus aethiops), and Greater Kudu (Tragelephus strepsiceros) were the three most abundant species across habitat types. In conclusion, findings of our study reveal that LANP plays an important role in Ethiopia's mammal conservation. Our findings will serve as baseline information for managers of the park to make effective conservation decisions and as a baseline for researchers wishing to conduct related ecological studies.     

Successional development of wood-inhabiting fungi associated with dominant tree species in a natural temperate floodplain forest

Fungi play a crucial role in dead wood decay, being the major decomposers of wood and affecting microbiota associated with dead wood. We sampled dead wood from five deciduous tree species over more than forty years of decay in a natural European floodplain forest with high tree species diversity. While the assembly of dead wood fungal communities shows a high level of stochasticity, it also indicates clear successional patterns, with fungal taxa either specific for early or late stages of wood decay. No clear patterns of fungal biomass content over time were observed. Out of 220 major fungal operational taxonomic units, less than 8% were associated with a single tree species, most of them with Quercus robur. Tree species and wood chemistry, particularly pH, were the most important drivers of fungal community composition. This study highlights the importance of dead wood and tree species diversity for preserving the biodiversity of fungi.     

The effects of land-use change on arthropod richness and abundance on Santa Maria Island (Azores): unmanaged plantations favour endemic beetles

We study how endemic, native and introduced arthropod species richness, abundance, diversity and community composition vary between four different habitat types (native forest, exotic forest of Cryptomeria japonica, semi-natural pasture and intensive pasture) and how arthropod richness and abundance change with increasing distance from the native forest in adjacent habitat types in Santa Maria Island, the Azores. Arthropods were sampled in four 150 m long transects in each habitat type. Arthropods were identified to species level and classified as Azorean endemic, single-island endemic (SIE), native, or introduced. The native forest had the highest values for species richness of Azorean endemics, SIEs and natives; and also had highest values of Azorean endemic diversity (Fisher’s alpha). In contrast, the intensive pasture had the lowest values for endemic and native species richness and diversity, but the highest values of total arthropod abundance and introduced species richness and diversity. Arthropod community composition was significantly different between the four habitat types. In the semi-natural pasture, the number of SIE species decreased with increasing distance from the native forest, and in the exotic forest the abundance of both Azorean endemics and SIEs decreased with increasing distance from the native forest. There is a gradient of decreasing arthropod richness and abundance from the native forest to the intensive pasture. Although this study demonstrates the important role of the native forest in arthropod conservation in the Azores, it also shows that unmanaged exotic forests have provided alternative habitat suitable for some native species of forest specialist arthropods, particularly saproxylic beetles.     

Reduced aboveground tree growth associated with higher arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal diversity in tropical forest restoration

Establishing diverse mycorrhizal fungal communities is considered important for forest recovery, yet mycorrhizae may have complex effects on tree growth depending on the composition of fungal species present. In an effort to understand the role of mycorrhizal fungi community in forest restoration in southern Costa Rica, we sampled the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal (AMF) community across eight sites that were planted with the same species (Inga edulis, Erythrina poeppigiana, Terminalia amazonia, and Vochysia guatemalensis) but varied twofold to fourfold in overall tree growth rates. The AMF community was measured in multiple ways: as percent colonization of host tree roots, by DNA isolation of the fungal species associated with the roots, and through spore density, volume, and identity in both the wet and dry seasons. Consistent with prior tropical restoration research, the majority of fungal species belonged to the genus Glomus and genus Acaulospora, accounting for more than half of the species and relative abundance found on trees roots and over 95% of spore density across all sites. Greater AMF diversity correlated with lower soil organic matter, carbon, and nitrogen concentrations and longer durations of prior pasture use across sites. Contrary to previous literature findings, AMF species diversity and spore densities were inversely related to tree growth, which may have arisen from trees facultatively increasing their associations with AMF in lower soil fertility sites. Changes to AMF community composition also may have led to variation in disturbance susceptibility, host tree nutrient acquisition, and tree growth. These results highlight the potential importance of fungal–tree–soil interactions in forest recovery and suggest that fungal community dynamics could have important implications for tree growth in disturbed soils.     

The role of novel forest ecosystems in the conservation of wood‐inhabiting fungi in boreal broadleaved forests

The increasing human impact on the earth's biosphere is inflicting changes at all spatial scales. As well as deterioration and fragmentation of natural biological systems, these changes also led to other, unprecedented effects and emergence of novel habitats. In boreal zone, intensive forest management has negatively impacted a multitude of deadwood‐associated species. This is especially alarming given the important role wood‐inhabiting fungi have in the natural decay processes. In the boreal zone, natural broad‐leaved‐dominated, herb‐rich forests are threatened habitats which have high wood‐inhabiting fungal species richness. Fungal diversity in other broadleaved forest habitat types is poorly known. Traditional wood pastures and man‐made afforested fields are novel habitats that could potentially be important for wood‐inhabiting fungi. This study compares species richness and fungal community composition across the aforementioned habitat types, based on data collected for wood‐inhabiting fungi occupying all deadwood diameter fractions. Corticioid and polyporoid fungi were surveyed from 67 130 deadwood particles in four natural herb‐rich forests, four birch‐dominated wood pastures, and four birch‐dominated afforested field sites in central Finland. As predicted, natural herb‐rich forests were the most species‐rich habitat. However, afforested fields also had considerably higher overall species richness than wood pastures. Many rare or rarely collected species were detected in each forest type. Finally, fungal community composition showed some divergence not only among the different habitat types, but also among deadwood diameter fractions. Synthesis and applications: In order to maintain biodiversity at both local and regional scales, conserving threatened natural habitat types and managing traditional landscapes is essential. Man‐made secondary woody habitats could provide the necessary resources and serve as surrogate habitats for many broadleaved deadwood‐associated species, and thus complement the existing conservation network of natural forests.     

Termite Diversity along an Amazon–Andes Elevation Gradient,Peru

Through their role as ‘ecosystem engineers’, termites provide a range of ecosystem services including decomposition, and carbon and nitrogen cycling. Although termite diversity levels differ between regions as a result of variation in regional species pool size, in general, termite diversity is thought to decline with elevation. This study (1) investigated how termite species density, abundance, functional group diversity and termite attack on dead wood vary with altitude along an Amazon–Andes altitudinal gradient in Peru; (2) identified likely environmental causes of this pattern; and (3) explored the implications of termite presence for ecosystem functioning (notably for decomposition). Termites were sampled with a standardized 100 × 2 m straight‐belt transect at five undisturbed forest sites along a gradient 190 to 3025 m, as were environmental variables and termite and fungus attack on dead wood. Termite diversity was similar to that found at comparable sites in South America, and there was little turnover of assemblage composition with elevation suggesting that montane specialists are not present. Termite diversity declined with increased elevation, though the upper distribution limit for termites was at a lower elevation than anticipated. We suggest that key drivers of this elevation pattern are reduced temperature with altitude and mid‐elevation peaks in soil water content. Also, attack on dead wood diminished with decreasing termite indirect absolute abundance, while the depth of the soil humic layer increased. We hypothesize that termite abundance is a major accelerant of decomposition rates (and associated mineralization) in Amazonian forests.     

The importance of forest type,tree species and wood posture to saproxylic wasp (Hymenoptera) communities in the southeastern United States

Although the forests of the southeastern United States are among the most productive and diverse in North America, information needed to develop conservation guidelines for the saproxylic (i.e., dependent on dead wood) fauna endemic to the region is lacking. Particularly little is known about the habitat associations and requirements of saproxylic parasitoids even though these organisms may be even more vulnerable than their hosts. We sampled parasitoids emerging from dead wood taken from two forest types (an upland pine-dominated forest and a lowland hardwood-dominated forest), three tree species (Liquidambar styraciflua L., Pinus taeda L., and Quercus nigra L.) and two wood postures (standing dead trees (i.e., snags) and fallen logs) in South Carolina. Parasitoid abundance did not differ between forest types or among tree species, but did differ between wood postures, being higher in snags than logs. This difference may have been due to the logs being in contact with the ground or surrounding vegetation and therefore less accessible to parasitoids. Parasitoid abundance and density decreased with height on both snags and logs. Species richness did not differ between forest types, among tree species or between wood postures. According to analysis of similarities, parasitoid communities did not differ between forest types, but did differ among tree species. The wasp communities associated with the different tree species and posture combinations were distinct. In addition, communities associated with the upper boles and crowns of snags were distinct from those occurring lower on snags. These results emphasize the importance of maintaining tree diversity in managed forests as well as retaining or creating entire snags at the time of harvest.     

Species diversity of polyporoid and corticioid fungi in northern hardwood forests with differing management histories

Effects of forest management on fungal diversity were investigated by sampling fruit bodies of polyporoid and corticioid fungi in forest stands that have different management histories. Fruit bodies were sampled in 15 northern hardwood stands in northern Wisconsin and the upper peninsula of Michigan. Sampling was conducted in five old-growth stands, five uneven-age stands, three even-age unthinned stands and two even-age thinned stands. Plots 100 m x 60 m were established and 3000 m2 within each plot was sampled during the summers of 1996 and 1997. A total of 255 polyporoid and corticioid morphological species were identified, 46 (18%) of which could not be assigned to a described species. Species accumulation curves for sites and management classes differed from straight lines, although variability from year to year suggests that more than 2 y of sampling are needed to characterize annual variation. Mean species richness and diversity index values did not vary significantly by management class, although mean richness on large diameter wood (> or = 15 cm diam) varied with moderate significance. Richness values on small diameter debris varied significantly by year, indicating that a large part of year-to-year variability in total species richness is due to small diameter debris. Ten species had abundance levels that varied by management class. Two of these species. Changes in the diversity and species composition of the wood-inhabiting fungal community could have significant implications for the diversity, health and productivity of forest ecosystems.     

Richness, Abundance, and Complementarity of Fruit-feeding Butterfly Species in Relict Sacred Forests and Forest Reserves of Ghana

Sacred forest groves in Ghana are centuries old protected areas that were once part of continuous forest cover but now mostly exist as relict forest patches embedded in an agropastoral landscape. We conducted a year-long survey of the fruit-feeding butterfly fauna of four sacred groves and two forest reserves in the moist semi-deciduous forest zone of Ghana to characterize resident species diversity and complementarity among communities. Joint analysis of frugivorous butterfly diversity at these six forest fragments, which ranged in size from 6 to 5000 ha, was used to evaluate the conservation potential of these ancient indigenous reserves. A total of 6836 individuals were trapped across all sites, representing 79 species and five subfamilies. Community diversity was characterized in terms of, (a) number of species accumulated versus sampling effort, (b) rarefied species richness, (c) nonparametric richness estimates, (d) species evenness, (e) Simpson’s Index of Diversity, and (f) complementarity of communities. Diversity of the fruit-feeding butterfly communities, quantified in terms of both species evenness and rarefied species richness, was higher at the larger forest reserves than at the small sacred forest groves. Additionally, although all sites had species trapped only at that site, the 5000-ha forest reserve harbored a resident community that was clearly distinctive from and more diverse than the other communities including the other forest reserve. Hence, our findings add to the burgeoning body of data that indicates large reserves are the foundation of successful conservation programs. Nonetheless, we found these small forest patches contribute to biodiversity conservation in at least three ways and these are identified and discussed. We also identify a number of species that appear more or less vulnerable to dynamics of forest fragmentation based on changes in their relative abundance across sites and we interpret these data in the context of potential indicator species and theoretical predictions of at-risk species.