Distribution and underground habitats of cave-dwelling bats in China

To understand the distribution and relative abundance of cave-dwelling bats and to identify those sites that would be important for conservation of bat species, 25 underground sites that had not been previously surveyed were investigated in this 3-year study (from December 2003 to April 2006) in Funiu Mountain of Henan province, China. Approximately 80 000 bats were recorded, representing 12 species. The most abundant species were Rhinolophus affini s, Miniopterus schreibersi and Hipposideros pratti . The roosts were evaluated for their conservation importance. The most important sites in the area are Yunhua and Nanzhao caves, which serve as hibernaculums and nursery roosts to c . 13 740 and 11 803 bats, respectively, representing seven species. By means of cluster and correspondence analysis, the distribution of bat species was different between the two sides of the mountain and was highly dependent on the size of the cave. The underground sites in the south region hosted c . 80% of the total bats, representing 11 species. The sites in the north region hosted 20% of the total bats, representing seven species. Presently, none of the caves in the region has adequate protection and some bat populations are under serious threat. Many large caves that contained large bat populations and several species of concern had been developed as tourist sites, and so some advice on protecting the most important local habitats was sought based on the assessment of the conservation status of underground sites. This paper presents basic data concerning the distribution of cave-dwelling bats and the patterns of cave use on Funiu Mountain. The data will help local governments and policy-makers develop suitable strategies to promote local tourisms while protecting important habitats of animal species.     

Ecological preferences of neotropical cave bats in roost site selection and their implications for conservation

Bats frequently use caves as roosts due to higher environmental stability and protection. However, species-specific ecological and physiological requirements and conditions of roosts and their surroundings can influence species presence. Little is known on cave choice by bats in the Neotropics, a species- and cave-rich region. Understanding how bats, cave characteristics and the surrounding landscape are related with each other helps the management and conservation of bats and caves. Based on sampling 19 caves using both diurnal observations and captures, we tested (1) whether bat richness was positively related to cave temperature, humidity, size, stability, and heterogeneity of microhabitats, and the preservation and heterogeneity of the surrounding landscape in central Brazil; (2) whether cave and landscape characteristics influenced on species composition; (3) how species responded to cave and landscape variables; and (4) whether these relationships changed between seasons. Temperature was a limiting factor, whereas environmental stability, humidity, and structural attributes of caves favored the occurrence of more species. Larger caves, rich in microhabitats – but more stable than the external environment – supported more species, especially in the dry season. Landscape context did not influence species richness and composition in the caves, but the percentage of vegetation around caves was important for certain species. Our results highlight the influence of environmental variables in the process of cave selection by Neotropical bat species. Moreover, we emphasize the importance of cave protection for bats and provide useful information for decision-making in processes of environmental licensing.     

河南省洞栖蝙蝠的多样性与保护

2011 年6 月至2013 年7 月,利用雾网和抄网捕捉蝙蝠,采用直接计数、拍照等方法统计蝙蝠的数量,调查了河南省60 个洞穴中蝙蝠的种类、数量及分布,根据蝙蝠的外形及头骨特征鉴定种类,计3 科6 属17 种,其中易危(VU)物种3 种,近危(NT)和无危(LC)物种各7 种。马铁菊头蝠和菲菊头蝠为河南省广布种。依据洞穴的开发情况和人类入洞活动的频度等,评估洞穴的干扰程度,30 个洞穴属严重干扰,10 个洞穴属轻度干扰,20 个洞穴属自然状态。依据洞穴中蝙蝠的种类、数量及濒危程度,将洞穴的相对重要性划分为4 个级别,级别1 和多数级别2 的洞穴具有大的空间和复杂的洞穴系统,这些洞穴既是蝙蝠的繁殖地又是冬眠场所,其中栖息的蝙蝠种类多且数量大。对洞穴的总长度、最大宽度和最大高度进行了测量,比较4 个级别洞穴的测量数据,级别1 洞穴的总长度、最大宽度、最大高度的平均值明显大于其他级别。目前,多数洞穴未得到很好的保护,由于旅游开发等原因,洞栖蝙蝠正面临着严重的生存危机。     

Hunting,disturbance and roost persistence of bats in caves at Ankarana,northern Madagascar

Surveys and monitoring of 37 caves in and around the Ankarana Special Reserve, northern Madagascar, yielded evidence of hunting of bats and potential disturbance of bats by miners and tourists, and colony counts for several bat species of potential conservation concern. Colony size decreased by 95% and 14% for a colony of Hipposideros commersoni and a colony of Eidolon dupreanum, respectively, when recent evidence of hunting occurred at those colonies and those declines are probably attributable to hunting. Evidence of hunting occurred commonly at the roosts of those species and most commonly at the roosts of Rousettus madagascariensis. Hunting of pteropodids was associated with high vulnerability of roosts to hunters, little forest buffer between the cave and open savannah and the absence of tombs in the cave. Roost sites of the hunted species persisted for at least several years and this regularity may facilitate hunting. This work supports the ranking of E. dupreanum, R. madagascariensis and H. commersoni as species of conservation concern. Managers should consider the impact of tourist visits on bats and of increasing access to caves for tourism. Conservation efforts for the hunted species should also seek to protect vulnerable and unprotected cave roosts.     

New records of ectoparasitic Acari (Arachnida) and Streblidae (Diptera) from bats in Jalisco,Mexico

Ectoparasites of bats in the Neotropics are diverse and play numerous ecological roles as vectors of microbial pathogens and endoparasites and as food sources for other cave fauna living both on their hosts and in bat roosts. The ectoparasites of bats in Jalisco State of western Mexico have not been as well described as those of other states with recent checklists that have focused primarily on the Yucatan Peninsula. We captured bats from 2011–2015 on the south coast and Sierra de Amula, Jalisco using mist nets, and we removed ectoparasites by hand. We identified 24 species of streblid bat flies and six ectoparasitic mites from bats caught in mist nets. There were an additional eight possibly undescribed species of Streblidae. Our collections extend the known range of species into Jalisco.     

Habitat fragmentation and the prevalence of parasites (Diptera,Streblidae) on three Phyllostomid bat species

Ectoparasitism in bats seems to be influenced strongly by the type of roost preferred by the hosts, and group size; however, the effect of habitat loss and fragmentation on the prevalence of ectoparasites in bats has scarcely been studied. In northeastern Yucatan, Mexico, we estimated the prevalence of infestation by Streblidae flies in three phyllostomid bat species with different roost preferences (caves, trees, or both) in two types of landscape matrices (tropical semi‐deciduous forest and man‐made pastures) that differed in area of forest cover and the number of forest fragments. Habitat fragmentation and the presence of a contrasting matrix may limit the availability of roosts (trees) and the movement of bats across the landscape. Accordingly, we hypothesized higher prevalence of Streblidae infestation in the pasture matrix and in the group of bats that roost in trees. Bat abundance was higher in the pasture matrix; however, the prevalence of infestation was significantly higher in the continuous forest matrix and in bats that roosted in caves. The prevalence of some species of Streblidae was affected by habitat fragmentation in species that roost in caves, such as Desmodus rotundus, as well as those using foliage and caves, such as Artibeus jamaicensis. Our results provide evidence that some species of Streblidae may respond differently to habitat fragmentation than their hosts, generating changes to bat‐ectoparasite interactions in fragmented areas. Environmental variations involving roosts, not evaluated in this study, may influence our results, since these factors affect ectoparasite abundance and reproduction.     

中华菊头蝠的栖息生态特征及种群保护

中华菊头蝠(Rhinolophus sinicus)主要分布于我国境内,属于典型的洞栖食虫性蝙蝠,具有重要的研究意义与保护价值。近年,在湘西州境内的16个溶洞中对其栖息生态特征进行了观察,共记录到其个体12942只次,数据分析结果显示：该蝠是该区域溶洞中的居留型优势蝠种,具有集群冬眠的习性。每年的9月中下旬开始逐步聚群冬眠,翌年的3月底开始苏醒,其夏季的繁育场所非常隐蔽,通常位于人无法进入的洞段或人迹罕至的洞穴。总体上,其栖点主要集中于距洞口150—200 m(91.60%)的洞段,离地高度6—10 m(91.75%),多以“双足悬挂”的栖姿将身体悬空倒挂于洞道的顶壁。其体温与栖点温度之间不存在显著性差异(P>0.05),但具有明显的线性正相关关系(R~2=0.8886)。其栖点安全性春夏季高,秋冬季中等偏低。中华菊头蝠作为该区域洞栖性蝙蝠的优势种,在维持洞穴生态系统的稳定中发挥着至关重要的作用,加强对洞穴生态系统中蝙蝠伞护性的研究有助于洞穴生态保护教育及对蝙蝠种群的保护实践。     

Diversity of Bartonella and Rickettsia spp. in Bats and Their Blood-Feeding Ectoparasites from South Africa and Swaziland

In addition to several emerging viruses, bats have been reported to host multiple bacteria but their zoonotic threats remain poorly understood, especially in Africa where the diversity of bats is important. Here, we investigated the presence and diversity of Bartonella and Rickettsia spp. in bats and their ectoparasites (Diptera and Siphonaptera) collected across South Africa and Swaziland. We collected 384 blood samples and 14 ectoparasites across 29 different bat species and found positive samples in four insectivorous and two frugivorous bat species, as well as their Nycteribiidae flies. Phylogenetic analyses revealed diverse Bartonella genotypes and one main group of Rickettsia, distinct from those previously reported in bats and their ectoparasites, and for some closely related to human pathogens. Our results suggest a differential pattern of host specificity depending on bat species. Bartonella spp. identified in bat flies and blood were identical supporting that bat flies may serve as vectors. Our results represent the first report of bat-borne Bartonella and Rickettsia spp. in these countries and highlight the potential role of bats as reservoirs of human bacterial pathogens.     

四川绵阳洞栖蝙蝠多样性及受胁现状

1999～2005年,对四川省绵阳市洞栖性蝙蝠进行了凋杳。共采集到4科,5属,14种,约占四川蝙蝠种类31．8％,中国蝙蝠种类11．7％。其中,大足鼠耳蝠（Myotis ricketti）为中国特有种,中华鼠耳蝠（Myotis chinensis）已被列入《中国物种红色名录》中的易危（VU）种,南蝠（Iu io）等5种被列入近危（NT）种。调查中发现不少洞穴已被开发或正在被开发成旅游景点,人为干扰已严重威胁洞穴内蝙蝠的生存。建议对蝙蝠栖息地采取一定的保护措施,并加强保护蝙蝠的宣传教育。     

Against all odds: explaining high host specificity in dispersal-prone parasites

Host specificity gauges the degree to which a parasite occurs in association with a single host species. The measure is indicative of properties of the host and parasite, as well as their ecological and co-evolutionary relationships. Host specificity is influenced by the behavior and ecology of both parasite and host. Where parasites are active, vagile and coupled with hosts whose behavior and ecology brings the parasite into contact with many potential hosts, the likelihood of host switching is increased, usually leading to lowered specificity. Bat flies are specialized, blood-feeding ectoparasites of bats worldwide. In the bat fly - bat system, numerous properties interrupt the linkage of parasite to host and should decrease specificity. For bat flies these include high levels of activity, proclivity to abandon a disturbed host, the ability to fly, and a life-history strategy that includes a pupal stage decoupled from the host. For bats these include rapid, frequent and wide-ranging flight, high species richness encouraging inter-specific encounters during foraging, roosting and reproductive events, the utilization of large, durable roosting structures that are often shared with other bat species, and utilization of common entrance/exit flyways. The biological and ecological characteristics of bats and flies should together facilitate interspecific host transfers and, over time, lead to non-specific host-parasite associations. Large surveys of Neotropical mammals and parasites, designed to eliminate artifactual host-to-host parasite transfers, unequivocally demonstrate the high host specificity of bat flies. High degrees of specificity are remarkable in light of myriad host and parasite characteristics that ought to break down such specificity. Although host-specific parasites often have limited dispersal capability, this is not the case for some groups, including active, mobile bat flies. Host specificity in parasites with high dispersal capability is likely related to adaptive constraints. Among these may be a reproductive filter selecting for specificity based on mate availability, and co-evolved immunocompatibility where parasites use the same or similar immune-signaling molecules as their hosts to avoid immunological surveillance and response.     

Causal mechanisms underlying host specificity in bat ectoparasites

In parasites, host specificity may result either from restricted dispersal capacity or from fixed coevolutionary host-parasite adaptations. Knowledge of those proximal mechanisms leading to particular host specificity is fundamental to understand host-parasite interactions and potential coevolution of parasites and hosts. The relative importance of these two mechanisms was quantified through infection and cross-infection experiments using mites and bats as a model. Monospecific pools of parasitic mites (Spinturnix myoti and S. andegavinus) were subjected either to individual bats belonging to their traditional, native bat host species, or to another substitute host species within the same bat genus (Myotis). The two parasite species reacted differently to these treatments. S. myoti exhibited a clear preference for, and had a higher fitness on, its native host, Myotis myotis. In contrast, S. andegavinus showed no host choice, although its fitness was higher on its native host M. daubentoni. The causal mechanisms mediating host specificity can apparently differ within closely related host-parasite systems.     

Pupal deposition and ecology of bat flies (Diptera: Streblidae): Trichobius sp. (caecus group) in a Mexican cave habitat

We studied the deposition of pupae of the winged bat fly Trichobius sp. (caecus group; Diptera), an ectoparasite of Natalus stramineus (Chiroptera, Natalidae), in a natural cave in Tamaulipas, Mexico. For the first time, we show a strong spatial segregation of populations of a streblid bat fly at different stages of development. Using molecular techniques we were able to match developmental stages to adults. Only 5 pupae were present in the main bat roosts. The overwhelming majority occurred exclusively in the bat flyway passages at a considerable distance from roosting bats. Pupal density corresponded positively with the average flight height of bats in the cave passage. Taken together, observations suggest that these ectoparasites must actively seek out their hosts by moving onto passing or roosting bats. The scarceness of pupae in the main roost may be dictated by environmental constraints for their development. The estimated population of viable pupae far exceeds the population of imagoes on the bats, and predation on adults by spiders is common.     

External temperature and distance from nearest entrance influence microclimates of cave and culvert‐roosting tri‐colored bats (Perimyotis subflavus)

Many North American bat species hibernate in both natural and artificial roosts. Although hibernacula can have high internal climate stability, they still retain spatial variability in their thermal regimes, resulting in various “microclimates” throughout the roost that differ in their characteristics (e.g., temperature and air moisture). These microclimate components can be influenced by factors such as the number of entrances, the depth of the roost, and distance to the nearest entrance of the roost. Tri‐colored bats are commonly found roosting in caves in winter, but they can also be found roosting in large numbers in culverts, providing the unique opportunity to investigate factors influencing microclimates of bats in both natural and artificial roost sites. As tri‐colored bats are currently under consideration for federal listing, information of this type could be useful in aiding in the conservation and management of this species through a better understanding of what factors affect the microclimate near roosting bats. We collected data on microclimate temperature and microclimate actual water vapor pressure (AWVP) from a total of 760 overwintering tri‐colored bats at 18 caves and 44 culverts. Using linear mixed models analysis, we found that variation in bat microclimate temperatures was best explained by external temperature and distance from nearest entrance in both caves and culverts. External temperature had a greater influence on microclimate temperatures in culverts than caves. We found that variation in microclimate AWVP was best explained by external temperature, distance from nearest entrance, and proportion from entrance (proportion of the total length of the roost from the nearest entrance) in culvert‐roosting bats. Variation in microclimate AWVP was best explained by external temperature and proportion from entrance in cave‐roosting bats. Our results suggest that bat microclimate temperature and AWVP are influenced by similar factors in both artificial and natural roosts, although the relative contribution of these factors differs between roost types.     

Does the mode of transmission between hosts affect the host choice strategies of parasites? Implications from a field study on bat fly and wing mite infestation of Bechstein's bats

In a two-year field study, we analyzed the distribution of two hematophagous ectoparasites, the bat fly Basilia nana and the wing mite Spinturnix bechsteini , within and among 14 female colonies and among 26 solitary male Bechstein's bats Myotis bechsteinii . Our goal was to investigate whether differences in the transmission mode of the parasites, which result from differences in their life cycle, affect their distribution between host colonies and among host individuals within colonies. Bat flies deposit puparia in bat roosts, allowing for the transmission of hatched flies via successively shared roosts, independent of body contact between hosts or of hosts occupying a roost at the same time. In contrast, wing mites stay on the bat's body and are transmitted exclusively by contact of bats that roost together. As expected in cases of higher inter-colony transmissibility, bat flies were more prevalent among the demographically isolated Bechstein's bat colonies and among solitary male bats, as compared to wing mites. Moreover, the prevalence and density of wing mites, but not of bat flies, was positively correlated with colony size, as expected in cases of low inter-colony transmissibility. Within colonies, bat flies showed higher abundance on host individuals in good body condition, which are likely to have high nutritional status and strong immunity. Wing mites showed higher abundance on hosts in medium body condition and on reproductive females and juveniles, which are likely to have relatively weak immunity. We suggest that the observed infestation patterns within host colonies reflect different host choice strategies of bat flies and wing mites, which may result from differences in their inter-colony transmissibility. Our data also indicate that infestation with wing mites, but not with bat flies, might be a cost of sociality in Bechstein's bats.     

Effects of Hierarchical Roost Removal on Northern Long-Eared Bat (Myotis septentrionalis) Maternity Colonies

Forest roosting bats use a variety of ephemeral roosts such as snags and declining live trees. Although conservation of summer maternity habitat is considered critical for forest-roosting bats, bat response to roost loss still is poorly understood. To address this, we monitored 3 northern long-eared bat (Myotis septentrionalis) maternity colonies on Fort Knox Military Reservation, Kentucky, USA, before and after targeted roost removal during the dormant season when bats were hibernating in caves. We used 2 treatments: removal of a single highly used (primary) roost and removal of 24% of less used (secondary) roosts, and an un-manipulated control. Neither treatment altered the number of roosts used by individual bats, but secondary roost removal doubled the distances moved between sequentially used roosts. However, overall space use by and location of colonies was similar pre- and post-treatment. Patterns of roost use before and after removal treatments also were similar but bats maintained closer social connections after our treatments. Roost height, diameter at breast height, percent canopy openness, and roost species composition were similar pre- and post-treatment. We detected differences in the distribution of roosts among decay stages and crown classes pre- and post-roost removal, but this may have been a result of temperature differences between treatment years. Our results suggest that loss of a primary roost or ≤ 20% of secondary roosts in the dormant season may not cause northern long-eared bats to abandon roosting areas or substantially alter some roosting behaviors in the following active season when tree-roosts are used. Critically, tolerance limits to roost loss may be dependent upon local forest conditions, and continued research on this topic will be necessary for conservation of the northern long-eared bat across its range.     

中国南方喀斯特荔波世界自然遗产地翼手目物种多样性与保护现状

为了解荔波世界自然遗产地翼手目动物的物种多样性和生存现状, 作者于2010年10月至2011年10月, 对中国南方喀斯特荔波世界自然遗产地区域内6个镇(乡)69个洞穴的翼手目动物进行了考察, 发现60个洞穴有翼手目动物栖息痕迹, 其中可以确定具体栖息物种的洞穴有37个。本次调查观察记录到翼手目动物10万余只, 隶属5科15种, 结合文献记载及贵州师范大学动物标本室保存的翼手目动物标本, 确认该地区共有翼手目动物7科24种。11种翼手目动物在荔波世界自然遗产地为首次记录, 其中狭耳鼠耳蝠(Myotis blythii)、果树蹄蝠(Hipposideros pomona)2种为贵州省翼手目新记录。该地区一些洞穴已被开发为旅游景点, 严重影响了洞穴内翼手目动物的生存, 翼手目动物保护状况令人担忧, 建议对翼手目动物栖息的洞穴采取必要的保护措施。     

Phylogeography of cave pseudoscorpions in southern Australia

Aim  To investigate molecular phylogenetic divergence and historical biogeography of the cave-dwelling pseudoscorpion genus Protochelifer.
Location  Caves and nearby epigean habitats in southern Australia were sampled from western Victoria, Naracoorte Caves, Flinders Ranges, Kangaroo Island, Nullarbor Plain and south-west Western Australia.
Methods  Allozyme electrophoresis (57 individuals) and a 569-base-pair section of the mtDNA COI gene (22 individuals) were used to reconstruct phylogenetic relationships among four cave species and three epigean species from 13 locations.
Results  Phylogenetic reconstruction using the allozyme and mtDNA sequence data revealed a similar topology, showing recent speciation of several Protochelifer populations in caves from Naracoorte to the Nullarbor Plain. Naracoorte Caves contained a single species, Protochelifer naracoortensis , found in four separate caves, while all other cave species appear to be restricted to single caves.
Main conclusions  At a local scale, as indicated by the four Naracoorte caves, dispersal is thought to occur via micro- and mesocaverns, and possibly by phoresy using insect or bat vectors. With current data we are unable to determine if cavernicolous species of Protochelifer have arisen from a single cave colonization event followed by phoretic dispersal on bats to other caves, or multiple cave-invasion events from independent epigean ancestors. Genetic heterogeneity among Protochelifer populations from Nullarbor caves suggest that P. cavernarum , the only species presently recorded from this region, is likely to constitute a species complex requiring further study to fully resolve its relationships.     

Spatial Structure of the community of bats (Chiroptera: Vespertilionidae) hibernating in artificial caves of Samarskaya Luka

Specific features of the spatial distribution and localization of bats have been studied during their hibernation in artificial caves of Samarskaya Luka. The proportion of cave area occupied by bats varies from 70 to 93% in large caves (>60000 m²), decreasing to 50% in medium-sized caves (10000–60000 m²) and to less than 30% in small caves (<10000 m²). Approximately 9% of bats choose sites near cave openings, up to 25% prefer central parts, but most bats (about 66%) concentrate in the deepest parts of caves. Among wintering species, higher rates of occurrence and shelter occupancy are characteristic of Plecotus auritus, Myotis daubentonii, and M. mystacinus, whereas M. dasycneme and M. brandtii show the highest degree of aggregation. The optimal temperature range for the wintering of all bat species is 2–4°C. Myotis brandtii, Eptesicus nilssonii, and M. daubentonii prefer to hibernate in open spaces of cave ceilings; M. mystacinus, E. serotinus, and Pl. auritus usually occupy the middle and upper parts of walls; while M. dasycneme and M. nattereri occur mainly in hollows on ceilings.     

Batbugs (Cimex pipistrelli group,Heteroptera: Cimicidae) are morphologically,but not genetically differentiated among bat hosts

Members of the family Cimicidae (Heteroptera) are obligate haematophagous ectoparasites. The Cimex pipistrelli species group parasitizes on bats, the likely ancestral hosts of the whole family. Based on morphology, it was suggested that three species of the group were present in the West‐Palaearctic region, although their validity remained a matter of discussion. Surprisingly, the status of these species has not been studied from the point of view of host specificity. We examined the diversification of the species group using morphological data, including the putative diagnostic characters, and sequences of one mitochondrial (cytochrome oxidase subunit I, COI) and four nuclear loci (internal transcribed spacer 2, 18S and 28s ribosomal genes and elongation factor 1 subunit α). This was carried out on a sample of 225 individuals from 69 bat roosts and 44 mist‐netted bats, altogether representing 12 bat species from 13 European countries and Lebanon. We revealed 27 mitochondrial haplotypes representing two distinct haplogroups and one outlying haplotype. The extent of morphological variability of specimens representing both haplogroups covers the range of characters reported for all three recognized species; therefore, the haplogroups clearly do not correspond to any described species. Also, the very limited variability found in the nuclear sequences of the cimicid bugs examined suggests that separate species do not exist in the region. We found considerable morphological differentiation among samples from different bat species, although individuals representing particular mitochondrial haplogroups often live sympatrically and on the same host species. It seems that batbugs are morphologically adapted to a particular bat host despite the low genetic structuring among individuals parasitizing different species of bats.     

Resource availability and roosting ecology shape reproductive phenology of rain forest insectivorous bats

Bats in temperate and subtropical regions typically synchronize birth of a single young with peaks in resource availability driven by local climate patterns. In tropical rain forest, insects are available throughout the year, potentially allowing departures from seasonal monoestry. However, reproductive energy budgets may be constrained by the cost of commuting to foraging grounds from distant roosts. To test these hypotheses, we simultaneously tracked female reproductive activity of 11 insectivorous bat species, insect biomass, and local weather variables for 20 months in a Malaysian rain forest. Five species roost in forest structures and hence have low commuting costs, whereas six species depend on caves, which are limited in the landscape, and are presumed to incur higher commuting costs to foraging sites. Monthly insect biomass was positively correlated with monthly rainfall, and there was a significant relationship between insect biomass and lactation in cave‐roosting but not forest‐roosting species. Cave‐roosting species were seasonally monoestrus, with parturition confined to a two‐month period, whereas in forest‐roosting species, pregnancy and lactation were recorded throughout the year. Our results suggest that the energetic costs of commuting from roosts to foraging grounds shape annual reproductive patterns in tropical rain forest insectivorous bats. Ongoing changes in forest landscapes are likely to increase these costs for cave‐roosting bats, further restricting reproductive opportunities. Climate change is projected to influence the timing of rainfall events in many tropical habitats, which may disrupt relationships between rainfall, insect biomass, and bat reproductive timing, further compromising reproductive success.