The practice and principles of community-based wildlife management in Zimbabwe: the CAMPFIRE programme

This paper describes Zimbabwe's wildlife-based CAMPFIRE programme. It suggests that community-based natural resource management is a potential solution to the inter-linked problems of poverty and conservation if it is based on sound management principles that also incorporate transparency, accountability and democracy because the unit of management is a community.This first section suggests that many of the causes of these natural resource problems in communal lands are a result of the failure of mechanisms to price and allocate resources efficiently. The second section describes the evolution of CAMPFIRE, while the third section summarizes the principles that underpin the programme. The fourth section discusses the governance of natural resources and describes the process by which rights to wildlife have been devolved. This emphasizes how important political and administrative systems are to wildlife conservation. CAMPFIRE can be viewed as a five-step process: getting an enabling political, legal, administrative and economic environment; creating awareness and a demand for the programme; generating revenues; using these revenues effectively; and, finally, setting in place the institutions and capacity for locally-based natural resource management. The first four sections of the paper deal with step on — the enabling environment, what it is and how it came about. The final section describes the actual implementation of the programme and is rather brief.     

中国天山野果林种子植物组成及资源状况分析

中国天山野果林种子植物共计60科237属435种,种类组成趋向于集中在少数科内,区系优势现象相当明显,反映出野果林自然环境的特殊性与区系的过渡性。在这些植物种类中有国家重点保护植物9种、中国珍稀濒危保护植物3种、自治区重点保护植物9种;林区野生植物资源非常丰富,统计结果表明：野生果树40种、食用植物30种、饲用植物以种、蜜源植物111种、观赏植物132种、香料植物如种、药用植物131种。文中对各类资源植物的特征进行了分析和讨论,并就野果林的保护及可持续利用提出建议。     

江苏野菜资源的利用与开发

江苏野菜资源丰富,共计１９２种,隶属４４科１０８属,其中蕨类植物７科１５属５１种,种子植物３７科９３属１４１种。江苏野菜利用历史悠久,近年已发展成为规模种植,产生良好的经济效益和社会效益。     

The filling phase of Mazvikadei Reservoir,Zimbabwe

Limnological measurements during the first year of filling of the newly formed Mazvikadei Reservoir in Zimbabwe showed variations in dissolved oxygen as well as soluble forms of phosphorus and nitrogen. The ratios of calcium to other major cations were: Ca:Mg = 0.38, Ca:Na = 0.50 and Ca:K = 2.0. The low Ca:Mg ratio may suppress development of mollusc populations, thus keeping the reservoir snail free. Conductivity was 160 μScm^-1. Daytime pH was 6.95–7.8. The water was dark-brown in colour, 90% of incident light was attenuated in the top 0.75 m in May, and in the top 3.5 m in August. Positive net photosynthesis was only recorded above a depth of 0.1 m, at 0.5 m and 1.0 m depths, it was negative. Zooplankton consisted of nine rotifer, four cladoceran, two cyclopoid and one calanoid species.     

The use of wild fruits in Zimbabwe

Most peasant households in Zimbabwe use edible fruits of indigenous woody plants. Deforestation does not significantly affect availability of selected fruits, because people tend not to cut selected trees when clearing land for cultivation. A different range of species is used in the different natural regions of Zimbabwe. Fruit use mainly occurs in the periods of seasonal food stress, even though these seasons are not necessarily the periods of maximum fruit abundance. Wild fruits, often the only source of fruit for households, are used mostly by children. There is a significant trade in wild fruits.     

ISSR primer screening and preliminary evaluation of genetic diversity in wild populations of Gycyrrhiza uralensis

Fourteen efficient inter-simple sequence repeat (ISSR) primers were screened and optimized for detecting the genetic diversity in wild populations of Glycyrrhiza uralensis Fisch. By using these primers, 249 polymorphic bands out of a total of 270 (92.2 %) were generated from 70 individuals of 4 wild G. uralensis populations sampled from Inner Mongolia Province of China. Nei’s gene diversity (h) and Shannon index (I) calculated from the data matrix of the ISSR phenotypes revealed a high level of genetic diversity with h = 0.268 and I = 0.415 within this plant. Analysis of molecular variation (AMOVA) showed that most of the genetic variation (81 %) occurred within the populations, whereas the variance among populations was only 19 %. The UPGMA tree based on Nei’s unbiased genetic diversity illustrated that populations from Bulage and Bayanwusu were genetically close related, while the population from Shanghaimiao was found to be the most diverse from the other three. The high genetic diversity implies that the wild resources of this species could be restored soon if an appropriate and efficient protection strategy was employed. Our results also provided an optimized method for evaluating genetic diversity of G. uralensis using ISSR markers which was useful for further investigation.     

The inshore fish yield potential of Lake Kariba, Zimbabwe

Four surplus yield models were used to estimate the yield potential of the Kariba inshore fishery. The classical methods gave maximum sustainable yield (MSY) values as high as 1333 t y-¹. These values are regarded as over-estimates in view of the present average annual catch of 619.4 t y-¹. The Schnute (1978) model gave an MSY of 719t y-¹ and a failure index close to 1 indicating that the data do not fit well into the model. Walter's (1986) graphical approach of fitting an approximate equilibrium yield curve to catch and effort predicts an MSY between 550 and 570t y-¹. It is suggested that the Kariba inshore fishery on the Zimbabwean side should be managed within this range, in Basins 4 and 5.

Résumé

Quatre modèles de rendement excédentaire ont été employés pour estimer le rendement potentiel de la pêcherie dans le lac Kariba. Les méthodes classiques donnaient un rendement maximal supportable (RMS) de 1333 ta-¹. On considere que ces valeurs sont surestimées au vu de la capture annuelle moyenne de 619 ta^-1. Le modèle de Schnute (1978) donnait un RMS de 719 ta^-1 et un risque d'erreur proche de 1, indiquant que les données ne s'intègrent pas bien dans le modèle. L'approche graphique de Walter (1986) qui tend à ajuster un niveau de rendement en équilibre approximatif entre I'effort et la prise prévoit un RMS compris entre 550 et 570 ta^-1. On suggère que la pêcherie dans le lac Kariba devrait être gérée dans cet ordre-là du côté zimbabwéken.     

Triple benefits from spatial resource management

Standard fishery management models suggest that regulations designed to produce maximum rent should reduce effort – and thus employment – from its open-access level. Using a simple diffusion model, we show that the opposite can be true when the spatial distribution of effort, as well as the total amount of effort, can be controlled. Under certain ecological and economic circumstances that we describe, optimal spatial management can produce “triple benefits” compared to open access: an increase in rent, an increase in standing stock, and an increase in employment. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

当前我国野生花卉资源研究中几个问题的探讨

本文简述了42年来中国花卉资源的研究概况,总结了国内外利用中国花卉资源的状况,分析了当前国际花卉商品生产消费的发展趋势。为加强我国花卉资源研究,提出了八点意见:(1)有组织有计划地利用可直接利用的资源;(2)发挥迁地保存与地区性优势的重要性;(3)加速传统名花资源研究,走外向型商品化道路;(4)加强育种研究;(5)开展资源花卉种子学的研究;(6)认真考虑组织培养与种质保存问题;(7)提高认识,普及科学知识;(8)加强科技力量的培养。     

Community based natural resource management in Zimbabwe: the experience of CAMPFIRE

Communal Areas Management Programme for Indigenous Resources (CAMPFIRE) is a long-term programmatic approach to rural development that uses wildlife and other natural resources as a mechanism for promoting devolved rural institutions and improved governance and livelihoods. The cornerstone of CAMPFIRE is the right to manage, use, dispose of, and benefit from these resources. Between 1989 and 2006, CAMPFIRE income, mostly from high valued safari hunting, totalled nearly USD 30 million, of which 52 allocated to sub-district wards and villages for community projects and household benefits. Whilst a number of assumptions underlying the success of CAMPFIRE as an innovative model for CBNRM have yet to be met, CAMPFIRE confirms the concept that devolving responsibility and accountability for natural resource management can be highly effective for the collective and participatory management of such resources. Elephant numbers in CAMPFIRE areas have increased and buffalo numbers are either stable or decreased slightly during the life of the programme. However, offtake quotas for these two species have increased with a concomitant decline in trophy quality. Although the amount of wildlife habitat diminished after 1980, following the commencement of CAMPFIRE the rate of habitat loss slowed down and in some specific instances was even reversed. More recently there has been increased pressure on habitats and other natural resources as a consequence of deteriora

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30 million, of which 52% was allocated to sub-district wards and villages for community projects and household benefits. Whilst a number of assumptions underlying the success of CAMPFIRE as an innovative model for CBNRM have yet to be met, CAMPFIRE confirms the concept that devolving responsibility and accountability for natural resource management can be highly effective for the collective and participatory management of such resources. Elephant numbers in CAMPFIRE areas have increased and buffalo numbers are either stable or decreased slightly during the life of the programme. However, offtake quotas for these two species have increased with a concomitant decline in trophy quality. Although the amount of wildlife habitat diminished after 1980, following the commencement of CAMPFIRE the rate of habitat loss slowed down and in some specific instances was even reversed. More recently there has been increased pressure on habitats and other natural resources as a consequence of deteriorating socio-economic conditions in the country. Where devolution has been successful, promising results have been achieved and the recent acceptance and implementation of direct payments to communities is probably the most significant development since 2000. That this has happened can be attributed to CAMPFIRE enabling communities to maximize their roles within the existing set of rules, and by so doing, allowing these rules to be challenged. Donor (73%) and government (27%) investments into the programme amounted to 35 million during the period 1989 to 2003. Since 2003 however, donor funding has been reduced to <$600,000 over the past 5 years.     

Alighting sites of female Tabanidae (Diptera) at Rekomitjie, Zimbabwe

Twenty-one species of Tabanidae from four genera were recorded. Where samples were large enough, the preferred alighting sites were determined for the tabanids, and differences in such sites were found for species in three genera. The lower legs of the bait ox were the preferred alighting site for 61.8% of the flies. In the season of peak fly numbers, the bait ox was under stress from the tabanids.     

The consumption of wood by rural households in Gokwe Communal Area,Zimbabwe

The objectives of this paper are to quantify the annual household consumption of wood for different purposes and to investigate the types of wood used for each purpose. Households in part of Gokwe Communal Area, a rural Zimbabwean study area in which wood is considered plentiful, use a mean 4.8 tons per household per year (t hh ^–1 yr ^–1 ) of wood for fuel, comprising 4.0 t to meet day-to-day requirements and 0.8 t for special occasions and beer brewing. In addition, building and repairing wooden structures require 3.5 t hh ^–1 yr ^–1 The total annual consumption is at most 8.3 t hh ^–1 yr ^–1 depending on the amount of wood in wooden structures that is recycled into new structures or as firewood. Wide variation around the mean annual consumption is expected because of differences among households and errors associated with calculation. The different purposes to which wood is put require wood of different types. Firewood for day-to-day use consists of small dead pieces collected in headloads. For brewing and special occasions large logs are used. Poles and small branches are freshly cut for wooden structures, with poles of particular girths and lengths being used for different components of the structures. Species is also taken into account in the collection of wood for fuel and construction. Disaggregation of the yearly consumption by site and species is important to the assessment of supply and demand of wood.     

Reproductive abnormalities in tsetse flies in Zimbabwe

Between November 1988 and July 1995 five technicians carried out ovarian dissections on 16,013 Glossina morsitans morsitans Westwood and 123,848 G. pallidipes Austen captured at Rekomitjie Research Station, Zambezi Valley, Zimbabwe. The ovarian age and uterine content were recorded, as were the lengths (l₁, l₂ and l_u) of the largest and second largest oocyte, and of any uterine inclusion. Major abnormalities and abnormal spermathecal contents were found in <0.1% of all flies dissected. Apparent abortions rates varied significantly between dissectors and occurred at frequencies of 0.8–4.5% in G. m. morsitans and 0.3–2.8% in G. pallidipes. The lowest estimates give the best picture of the field situation. Abortion rates were higher in flies caught on electric nets than in trapped flies where the rate was only 0.15%, indicating that reproductive losses are negligible for most of the year at Rekomitjie. The rates did, however, increase to >2% when mean temperatures exceeded 27°C and flies were captured in artificial refuges. There was little effect of ovarian age on the abortion rate, but the frequency of empty uteri declined markedly with age – with a suggestion, however, that it might increase again in the oldest flies. A knowledge of the rates of reproductive loss is important for the construction of realistic models of the dynamics of tsetse populations.     

Coping with drought: Responses of herders and livestock in contrasting savanna environments in Southern Zimbabwe

This paper examines the contrasting responses to short- and long-term droughts shown by cattle populations in two different savanna ecosystems in a communal area in southern Zimbabwe. It illustrates how ecological responses are modified by differential management inputs—herding, transhumant movement, and supplementary feeding. The impacts of drought on cattle herds can thus be understood only with insight into this interaction of ecological and socioeconomic factors. Such detailed study of drought response can most effectively inform development planning.     

皖西大别山区金樱子野生资源贮备量的调查研究

本文采用不同地段金樱子多度调查,样方调查等方法,对皖西大别山区野生金樱子的资源储备量作了调查研究,提出了该区金樱子年产量的计算方法,并对金樱子的进一步开发提出建议。     

The role of economic incentives and social norms in forest resource management

Forests are experiencing increasing pressure from human activities, which is leading to rapid deforestation and loss of ecosystem services. Although deforestation occurs for a wide range of reasons, one important reason is that landowners lack a long-term management view. I suggest that both economic incentives and social norms will work differently to reduce landowners’ motivation to deforest and to help landowners identify the long-term benefits that will be obtained by sacrificing short-term gain.     

Towards a definition of a crop wild relative

Crop wild relatives are an important socio-economic resource that is currently being eroded or even extinguished through careless human activities. If the Conference of the Parties (COP) to the CBD 2010 Biodiversity Target of achieving a significant reduction in the current rate of loss is to be achieved, we must first define what crop wild relatives are and how their conservation might be prioritised. A definition of a crop wild relative is proposed and illustrated in the light of previous Gene Pool concept theory. Where crossing and genetic diversity information is unavailable, the Taxon Group concept is introduced to assist recognition of the degree of crop wild relative relatedness by using the existing taxonomic hierarchy.     

The effect of rainfall on tick challenge at Kyle Recreational Park,Zimbabwe

The effect of rainfall pattern on tick challenge was investigated at Kyle Recreational Park, Zimbabwe, from 1991 to 1992 using drag and removal plot methods to sample environmental tick density. The abundance of adults and nymphs of the brown ear-tick Rhipicephalus appendiculatus and larvae of the bont tick Amblyomma hebraeum was positively correlated with monthly rainfall, whereas no relationship with rainfall was revealed for larval R. appendiculatus, adults of the red-legged tick R. evertsi, or larvae of the blue tick Boophilus decoloratus. A comparison between 1991 (490 mm rainfall) and the drought year of 1992 (161 mm) revealed significant differences in the abundance of R. appendiculatus, A. hebraeum, and B. decoloratus. During the wet season, R. appendiculatus adults were 2–3 time more numerous in the environment during the higher rainfall year of 1991. A. hebraeum larval abundance exhibited a similar pattern to that of R. appendiculatus adults, but B. decoloratus larvae were more abundant in the drought year of 1992 during both the wet and dry seasons. Comparable tick abundance data collected at Kyle during the above-average rainfall years of 1975–1977 (mean = 1029 mm) were compared with tick challenge during the below-average rainfall years of 1991–1992 (mean = 326 mm). In grassland sand habitat and all habitats combined R. appendiculatus adults, nymphs, and larvae were much more abundant during the high rainfall years. In contrast, larvae of B. decoloratus were more numerous during the drier years. A. hebraeum larvae were also more abundant during the drier years. The strong positive correlation of adult R. appendiculatus abundance with rainfall and the coincidence of increased adult tick challenge with increased rainfall indicates that adult R. appendiculatus tick burden on hosts would be heaviest during the wet season and high rainfall years.