Surnames in Bolivia: A study of the population of Bolivia through isonymy

In Bolivia, the Hispanic dual surname system is used. To describe the isonymic structure of Bolivia, the surname distribution of 12,139,448 persons registered in the 2006 census data was studied in 9 districts and 112 provinces of the nation, for a total of 23,244,064 surnames. The number of different surnames found was 174,922. Matrices of isonymic distances between the administrative units (districts and provinces) were constructed and tested for correlation with geographic distance. In the 112 provinces, isonymic distances were correlated with geographic distance (r = 0.545 ± 0.011 for Euclidean, 0.501 ± 0.012 for Nei's, and 0.556 ± 0.010 for Lasker's distance). The multiple regression of the surname effective number (α), equivalent to the allele effective number in a genetic system, was nonsignificant on latitude and longitude; however, it was highly significant and negative on altitude (r = ?0.72). Because the Andes extend from north to south in west‐central Bolivia, random inbreeding was lowest in the eastern districts, and highest in mountainous western Bolivia. Average α for the provinces was 122 ± 2; for the districts, it was 216 ± 29, and for the whole of Bolivia it was 213. The geographical distribution of α in the provinces is compatible with the settlement of subsequent groups of migrants moving from east and north toward the center and south of Bolivia. The relative frequency of indigenous surnames is correlated positively with altitude. This suggests that the country was populated by recent low‐density demic diffusion over a low‐density indigenous population. This may have been a common phenomenon in the immigration to tropical South America. Am J Phys Anthropol, 2011. © 2010 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Surnames in Argentina: a population study through isonymy

In order to study the isonymic structure of Argentina, the surname distributions of 22.6 million electors registered for the year 2001 were analyzed in the 24 districts (distritos) and 541 municipalities (municipios) of the country. The number of different surnames found was 414,441. Matrices of isonymic distances between districts were constructed and tested for correlation with the geographic distance between the capital towns of the districts. We found that, for the whole of Argentina, Euclidean distance was correlated with the log of geographic distance (r=0.480+/- 0.067). A dendrogram of the 24 regions was built from the matrix of Euclidean distances, using the UPGMA method. The clusters identified by the dendrogram are coincident with conterminous geographical regions of the country. Random inbreeding calculated from isonymy, F(ST), was highest in La Rioja, Corrientes, and Santiago del Estero. It was lowest in the area of Buenos Aires and in the north-central region of Santa Fé. Average Fisher's alpha for municipalities was 358; for districts, it was 422; and for Argentina as a unit, it was 602. The geographical distribution of alpha in 541 municipalities, high in the east and lower in the west of the country, is compatible with the settlement in the 20th century of subsequent waves of immigrants moving from the North Atlantic coast toward the foot of the Andes and toward the south. The present structure of Argentina indicates that migration dominates over drift.     

The names of Spain: a study of the isonymy structure of Spain

In order to estimate the isonymy structure of Spain, we studied surname distribution in 283 Spanish towns based on 3.625 million telephone users selected from 6.328 million users, downloaded from a commercial CD-ROM which contains all 13 million users in the country. Since in Spain the surname is made by the paternal and the maternal surname, it was possible to classify surnames according to parental origin. Two matrices of isonymy distances, one for paternal and one for maternal surnames, were constructed and tested for correlation with geographic distance. For the whole of Spain, Euclidean distance was significantly but weakly correlated with geographic distance both for paternal and maternal surnames, with r = 0.205 +/- 0.013 and r = 0.263 +/- 0.012, respectively. Two dendrograms of the 283 sampled towns were built from the two matrices of Euclidean distance. They are largely colinear. Four main clusters identified by the dendrograms are correlated with geography. Given the surname structure of Spain, we were able to calculate from isonymy and for each town 1). total or expressed inbreeding, 2). random or expected inbreeding, and 3). local inbreeding. Total inbreeding, F(IT), was highest in the North Atlantic regions and lowest along the Mediterranean Coast. The lowest levels were found in Andalusia, Catalunyia, Valencia, and Navarra. Random inbreeding, F(ST), had a similar geographical pattern. Local inbreeding, F(IS), was relatively uniform in the whole of Spain. In towns, random inbreeding dominates over local inbreeding. From the analysis, it emerges that the northwestern area of Spain is the most inbred.     

Surnames in Western Europe: a comparison of the subcontinental populations through isonymy

We studied the isonymic structure of Western Europe using the distributions of 26.2 million surnames in 8 countries, 125 regions and 2094 towns of the Subcontinent. We found that, for the whole of Western Europe, Nei's distance was correlated with geographic distance (r=0.610+/-0.009). It was observed that at long geographic distances the isonymyc distance stays below linearity and tends to become asymptotic, and this was attributed to long distance migration. A dendrogram of the125 regions was built and the clusters identified by the dendrogram are almost exactly coincident with the nations of the Subcontinent. Random inbreeding calculated from isonymy, F(ST), was highest in Spanish regions, and lowest in France. The geographical distribution of alpha in 2094 towns, high in the Center and East of the Subcontinent and lower in Spain, is compatible with the settlement of subsequent waves of migrants moving from the West and from the South toward the centre of the Continent. The present surname structure of Western Europe is strictly linked to local languages.     

Analysis of admixture and genetic structure of two Native American groups of Southern Argentinean Patagonia

Argentinean Patagonia is inhabited by people that live principally in urban areas and by small isolated groups of individuals that belong to indigenous aboriginal groups; this territory exhibits the lowest population density of the country. Mapuche and Tehuelche (Mapudungun linguistic branch), are the only extant Native American groups that inhabit the Argentinean Patagonian provinces of Río Negro and Chubut. Fifteen autosomal STRs, 17 Y-STRs, mtDNA full length control region sequence and two sets of Y and mtDNA-coding region SNPs were analyzed in a set of 434 unrelated individuals. The sample set included two aboriginal groups, a group of individuals whose family name included Native American linguistic root and urban samples from Chubut, Río Negro and Buenos Aires provinces of Argentina. Specific Y Amerindian haplogroup Q1 was found in 87.5 % in Mapuche and 58.82 % in Tehuelche, while the Amerindian mtDNA haplogroups were present in all the aboriginal sample contributors investigated. Admixture analysis performed by means of autosomal and Y-STRs showed the highest degree of admixture in individuals carrying Mapuche surnames, followed by urban populations, and finally by isolated Native American populations as less degree of admixture. The study provided novel genetic information about the Mapuche and Tehuelche people and allowed us to establish a genetic correlation among individuals with Mapudungun surnames that demonstrates not only a linguistic but also a genetic relationship to the isolated aboriginal communities, representing a suitable proxy indicator for assessing genealogical background.     

Isonymy and the genetic structure of Albanian populations

It is well known that in systems of surname transmission through the paternal line, surnames simulate neutral gene alleles belonging to the Y chromosome. This property of surnames was used to analyze the genetic structure of Albanian populations. Two large samples of surnames belonging to two different periods of time were analyzed. The analysis of indicators of population structure showed that geographical distance has an important effect on surname distribution. It seems that isolation by distance and genetic drift have been still important factors in the determination of the genetic structure of the Albanian population.     

Relationship between 17 Venezuelan counties estimated through communality of surnames

The coefficients of relationship and the Euclidean distances between 17 Venezuelan counties were estimated based on the frequency distribution of surnames obtained from the 1984 Venezuelan register of electors. In general, the coefficients of relationship between counties within the same state were higher than those between counties from different states. Euclidean distances exhibited the opposite relationship. Spearman's correlation coefficients for 136 pairs of counties were estimated between geographic and Euclidean distances (r = 0.41), geographic distance and coefficient of relationship (r = -0.44) and between Euclidean distance and coefficient of relationship (r = -0.48). The effect of partial geographic isolation on the frequency distribution of surnames is shown in the State of Falcón, where an isthmus separates two counties of the peninsula from two others on the mainland, and in Mérida, where the Venezuelan Andes separates three counties from the rest of the country. Our results suggest that Euclidean distances are less influenced by common surnames than the coefficients of relationship. They also indicate that in Venezuela a high proportion of the population has remained sedentary until recently, and this gives rise to the focal distribution of some surnames.     

Sicilian provinces: population subdivisions revealed by surname frequencies

The Sicilian population has a complex history of colonization and invasions that have influenced the genetic composition of the nine provinces of the island. Because surnames are patrilineally inherited, they simulate a Y-chromosome nonrecombinant genetic locus. We used surname data and a specific sampling strategy to describe the major subdivisions in each province and for the whole island of Sicily. The high number of families per surname in two provinces can be related to inbreeding as a result of founder events. Each province shows a major division, which, according to local historical events, likely represents cultural and probably genetic differences between east and west, between north and south, or between the inner regions and the coastal area. On the island level surnames reproduce the same separation, obtained by others with genes, of the eastern area from the western area. The separation is attributed to Greek influence in the east and to Phoenician-Carthaginian-Norman influence in the west. This separation crosses the two central provinces of Agrigento and Caltanissetta.     

Surnames in Siberia: a study of the population of Yakutia through isonymy

We studied the isonymic structure of the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia), in the Russian Federation, using the surname distributions of 491,259 citizens above 18 years registered as residents in 2002. These were distributed in 35 districts and 497 towns and settlements of the Republic. The number of different surnames was 44,625. Matrices of isonymic distances between the 35 districts were tested for correlation with the geographic distance between the population centers of gravity of the districts. We found that, for the whole of Yakutia, Nei's distance was correlated with geographic distance (r = 0.693 +/- 0.027). A dendrogram of the 35 districts was built from the distance matrix, using the UPGMA method. The clusters identified by the dendrogram correlate with the geographic position of the districts. The correlation of random inbreeding calculated from isonymy, F(ST), with latitude was positive and highly significant but weak (r = 0.23). So, inbreeding was highest in the Arctic districts, and lowest in the South. Average alpha for 497 towns was 107, for 35 districts it was 311, and for the Republic 433. The value of alpha was higher for Russian than for the local languages. The geographical distribution of alpha, high in the Center and South-East and lower in the North-West, is compatible with the settlement of groups of migrants moving from the South-East toward the center and the North of Yakutia. It is proposed that low-density demic diffusion of human populations results in high inbreeding and may have been a general phenomenon in the early phases of human radiations.     

Isonymic relationships in ethno-social categories (Argentinian colonial period) including illegitimate reproduction

Surnames provide a useful method to study the structure of human populations for which biological data are not available. The isonymic method has had multiple applications, but difficulties emerge when dealing with groups where extramarital reproduction is common and the sample size is small, and even more so when only paternal surnames are taken into account.Therefore, it could be of interest to retain female surnames, including those of unmarried mothers. This study was carried out using all birth records froman Argentinian population in the colonial period, which was characterized by the presence of different ethno-social groups (Spanish, Indian and 'Mestizo'or mixed Spanish-Indian) and various reproductive patterns regarding legitimacy. Coefficient of relationship by isonymy (Ri) kinship matrices between geographical populations were obtained, and the results derived from sets of surnames (paternal, maternal of legitimate and illegitimate children,and all surnames in the registers) compared. The results show similar surname distribution regardless of the set of surnames and group considered.Kinship Ri matrices using paternal surnames, maternal surnames of legitimate children, maternal surnames of illegitimate children, and the set of whole surnames showed the same relationships among populations, indicating a similar pattern for Spanish, Indian and Mixed ethno-social groups. Mantel test correlation between all pairs of matrices was significant in all different ethno-social groups. The results suggest that in populations with high illegitimacy, such as that studied here, it is possible to include maternal surnames, even corresponding to single mothers, in order to consider total reproduction and therefore maximize sample size.     

Surnames in Texas: a population study through isonymy

To study the isonymy structure of Texas, we analyzed the surname distributions of 3.6 million telephone users registered for the year 1996 in 232 towns distributed in the 7 regions of the state. The number of different surnames was 235,740. Matrices of isonymy distances between towns and between geographic regions were constructed and tested for correlation with geographic distance. We found that isonymy distances between the seven regions showed borderline or no correlation with geographic distance, with r = 0.089 +/- 0.232, r = 0.492 +/- 0.232, and r = 0.337 +/- 0.232 for Lasker's, Euclidean, and Nei's distances, respectively. Isonymy distances between towns were significantly correlated with geographic distance, with r = 0.249 +/- 0.006 for Lasker's distance, r = 0.338 +/- 0.006 for the Euclidean distance, and r = 0.418 +/- 0.006 for Nei's distance. Two dendrograms, one for the 7 regions and one for the 232 towns, were built from the matrices of Nei's distances. The dendrogram for regions indicates that a main surname differentiation exists between the East and West areas of Texas, with West Texas being predominantly Hispanic and East Texas being predominantly English-speaking. The dendrogram for the towns confirms in detail the differences identified by the matrix of distances between regions. Random inbreeding calculated from isonymy, F(ST), was highest in the west and in the south of the state. It was lowest in the area of Austin and Houston. Average Fisher's alpha for towns was 734, for regions it was 1,047, and for Texas as a whole it was 1,230. The geographic distribution of alpha in the state shows distinctly lower values in the traditionally Hispanic west and higher values in the east and on the Gulf of Mexico.     

Ethnicity determination by names among the Aymara of Chile and Bolivia

The importance of surnames in genetic studies has been recognized for a century or so. While the ethnic affiliations of individuals are ordinarily established in genetic studies by admixture analysis based on gene frequencies, often there are implicit assumptions in these attempts that are difficult to validate in the absence of detailed ethnohistories. In northern Chile and western Bolivia, where genetic admixture has been known to occur among the Aymara Indians and Spanish Caucasoids, the naming pattern (parental patriand matrinyms) allowed us to classify individuals on the basis of the frequency of Aymara names into 9 'ethnic' groups. From a sample of 2525 individuals it is shown that admixture occurred in lineages nonrandomly, implying assortative mating of surnames. Admixture and genetic distance analysis on the basis of 31 genetic markers on approximately 1700 of these individuals reveals that there is a reasonable agreement of ethnic classification of individuals by name and phenotype data on genetic markers. The Aymara-named groups are shown to be predominantly Amerindian (89%) in their genetic profiles. Individuals whose current naming pattern is basically Spanish also exhibit a substantial fraction of genes of Amerindian origin (67%). Presence of some rare alleles not found in Amerindian or Spanish Caucasoids in the admixed groups suggest infiltration of Negroid genes in the past.     

Autochthony and HLA frequencies in the Netherlands: when surnames are useless markers

To study the genetic variability of the HLA loci A, B, DR, and DQ in the Netherlands, we analyzed more than 13,000 typings provided by the Dutch National Reference Laboratory for Histocompatibility. To investigate any possibly existing population structure, we subdivided the typings by the geographic location of residency of donors and by the historical belonging of their surnames to given provinces. Concerning possible geographic patterns, we found no significant differences between the four provinces examined (North Holland, South Holland, Utrecht, Zeeland). To assess whether such a negative result was related to recent immigration to the area (the richest of the country) that erased possible preexisting patterns of HLA diversity, we reprocessed the database according to the surnames of HLA donors. We obtained two groups: (1) those having a surname typical of the four provinces they inhabit and (2) those with surnames coming from elsewhere. Such an analysis was made possible because of the availability of a database concerning the geographic origin of most Dutch surnames. Even with this surname-based approach, no major differences were found. We conclude that either the western part of the Netherlands was genetically homogeneous before the official introduction of Dutch surnames two centuries ago by Napoleon or surnames have no power in dissecting HLA variability; that is, such variability is the result of recombination phenomena that surnames cannot mirror because they are transmitted virtually unchanged generation after generation. A comparable study by other investigators recommended the use of family names to identify rare HLA haplotypes in France, but now, concerning the Netherlands, we find opposite results. We suggest that a few typing centers may be sufficient to type bone marrow donors, because HLA genetic differences between the different provinces of the Netherlands are extremely low. To maximize the number of donors, such centers should be located in areas providing the easiest access to the largest population of possible donors, thus disregarding the search for a local variability that we did not find.     

Surnames in the Study of Human Biology

Use of surname analysis in human population biology depends on surnames being inherited like genes. In societies that meet this condition, communities with a few surnames at high frequency are the more inbred ones, and marriages between persons of the same surname can be used to estimate rates of inbreeding. Furthermore, the degree of commonality of the surnames of two communities estimates their biological relationship provided that any two persons of the same surname derived it from a common ancestor and that virilocal and uxorilocal migration is equal. Although the assumptions are only partially met, the surname method yields results which correlate with the amount of marital migration and with geographical and historical features. Rare surnames meet the assumptions better than common ones. Documents, both old and new, yield surnames of large numbers of people which can easily be analyzed to show the cumulative effect of marital migration since the establishment of surnames (in England in the Middle Ages). Surnames thus serve to delineate the breeding structure of some human populations over a longer span of time than is usually possible with pedigrees, over a more definite span of time than in genetic studies, and more easily in broad surveys than alternative methods . [isonymy, surnames, inbreeding, coefficient of relationship, England]     

In the name of the migrant father--analysis of surname origins identifies genetic admixture events undetectable from genealogical records

Patrilineal heritable surnames are widely used to select autochthonous participants for studies on small-scale population genetic patterns owing to the unique link between the surname and a genetic marker, the Y-chromosome (Y-chr). Today, the question arises as to whether the surname origin will be informative on top of in-depth genealogical pedigrees. Admixture events that happened in the period after giving heritable surnames but before the start of genealogical records may be informative about the additional value of the surname origin. In this context, an interesting historical event is the demic migration from French-speaking regions in Northern France to the depopulated and Dutch-speaking region Flanders at the end of the sixteenth century. Y-chr subhaplogroups of individuals with a French/Roman surname that could be associated with this migration event were compared with those of a group with autochthonous Flemish surnames. Although these groups could not be differentiated based on in-depth genealogical data, they were significantly genetically different from each other. Moreover, the observed genetic divergence was related to the differences in the distributions of main Y-subhaplogroups between contemporary populations from Northern France and Flanders. Therefore, these results indicate that the surname origin can be an important feature on top of in-depth genealogical results to select autochthonous participants for a regional population genetic study based on Y-chromosomes.     

Footprints of Middle Ages Kingdoms Are Still Visible in the Contemporary Surname Structure of Spain

To assess whether the present-day geographical variability of Spanish surnames mirrors historical phenomena occurred at the times of their introduction (13^th-16^th century), and to infer the possible effect of foreign immigration (about 11% of present-day) on the observed patterns of diversity, we have analyzed the frequency distribution of 33,753 unique surnames (tokens) occurring 51,419,788 times, according to the list of Spanish residents of the year 2008. Isonymy measures and surname distances have been computed for, and between, the 47 mainland Spanish provinces and compared to a numerical classification of corresponding language varieties spoken in Spain. The comparison of the two bootstrap consensus trees, representing surname and linguistic variability, suggests a similar picture; major clusters are located in the east (Aragón, Cataluña, Valencia), and in the north of the country (Asturias, Galicia, León). Remaining regions appear to be considerably homogeneous. We interpret this pattern as the long-lasting effect of the surname and linguistic normalization actively led by the Christian kingdoms of the north (Reigns of Castilla y León and Aragón) during and after the southwards reconquest (Reconquista) of the territories ruled by the Arabs from the 8^th century to the late 15^th century, that is when surnames became transmitted in a fixed way and when Castilian linguistic varieties became increasingly prestigious and spread out. The geography of contemporary surname and linguistic variability in Spain corresponds to the political geography at the end of the Middle-Ages. The synchronicity between surname adoption and the political and cultural effects of the Reconquista have permanently forged a Spanish identity that subsequent migrations, internal or external, did not deface.     

宋朝中国人的姓氏分布与群体结构分化

姓氏是一种十分有用的文化遗传因子,它的传递方式类似于Ｙ染色体的表现。１０００年前宋朝（公元９６０￣１１７９年）中国人姓氏频率的分布,是一组十分吻合Ｋａｒｌｉｎ－ＭｃＧｒｅｇｏｒ的中性等位基因分布理论的随机数据。１６个省区的姓氏种类丰度的相对参数α和迁移率的相对参数ｖ的分析,反映了这一时期的中国人群的迁移和人群间混合的程度。姓氏遗传距离和现状聚类图的分析,表明在１０００年前的宋朝中国人群已经形成了南     

Isonymy structure of USA population

The isonymy structure of the 48 states of the continental United States of America was studied using the surname distributions of 18 million telephone users, distributed in 247 towns. The shortest linear distance between nearest neighbor towns included in the sample was 12.0 km. The largest distance was 4,577 km. The number of different surnames found in the whole analysis was 899,585. Lasker's distance was found to be significantly but weakly correlated with the geographic distance, with r = 0.21 +/- 0.01. A dendrogram of the 48 states was built from the matrix of isonymy distances: it divides the US into several clusters, in general correlated with geography. A notable exception is California and New Jersey, which cluster together. Wisconsin is separated from all other states. An important cluster is formed by Texas, Colorado, New Mexico, Nevada, and Arizona, together with Illinois and Florida. It was observed that Hispanic surnames are among the most frequent in Illinois, as they are in New Jersey and California. No main distinction among the states clearly attributable to surnames of French origin was detected; however, New Hampshire, Vermont, and Maine which have a considerable number of these surnames belong to the same northeastern cluster. From the present analysis, the great mobility of the US population emerges clearly, and it seems relevant that the practical absence of isolation by distance is seen also considering only small towns. It appears that groups of different origin are well-mixed over the whole area of the United States. The values of isonymy indicate that the south-central area of the USA has the highest level of inbreeding. In fact, the heterogeneity in surname composition is greater in the coastal areas, particularly on the East Coast, than anywhere else in the USA.     

Surname analysis of the Corsican population reveals an agreement with geographical and linguistic structure

The surname is a cultural trait that is extremely useful for historical and linguistic studies and can effectively be used as a genetic marker. In many human populations the surname is inherited in the paternal lineage, and can therefore be considered a marker for the Y chromosome. In this study, surnames were recorded from the white pages of telephone directories in current use in Corsica in 1993. All surnames present in thirteen villages scattered over the whole island and covering the main historical regions were transcribed. Surname variability was found to be higher in coastal villages, and lower in more isolated communities. The isonymy detected among the thirteen villages allowed the calculation of kinship values, visualized in a tree showing two main clusters, one referring to the northern villages and one encompassing the villages of the south. The pattern reflects the administrative division of the island, with the exception of Vico, which belongs to the southern administrative region but is geographically close to the northern villages, and Ghisoni, which belongs to the northern district but is more similar to the village of Bastelica in the southern district. The data presented here show a structure in the surname distribution that is in substantial agreement with the geographical patterns. The kinship values are consistent with a moderated gene flow among villages producing a surname structure according to the geographic features of the territory.