自由飞行蜜蜂跟踪运动目标的研究

本文对自由飞行蜜蜂跟踪运动目标的能力进行了研究.实验结果表明蜜蜂能够准备地跟踪运动目标.当目标的距离较大时蜜蜂主要通过校正与目标的角度偏差接近目标.无论是在水平方向或是垂直方向,密蜂使用了目标误差角以及目标相对蜜蜂的角速度的信息.蜜蜂的运动目标跟踪控制系统,往往把目标置于复眼的前下方体轴夹角约35度的视场区域中.目标与背景颜色对(?)的的实验结果表明蜜蜂跟踪行为所利用的目标的速度的信息是来自于对绿色敏感的光感受器:而与目标位置有关的方位角的信息则不仅仅来自于绿色光感受器,而且也来自于兰色光感受器.当蜜蜂与目标的距离较近时,蜜蜂除了角度校正以外还使用了横向移动来跟踪运动目标.横向目标跟踪系统看来仅仅接受来自于对绿色敏感的光感受器的信号.     

蜻蜒运动检测神经元的光谱反应

蜻蜒腹神经束上存在着自运动检测神经元和目标运动检测神经元.我们采用了两种视觉刺激条件来测试自运动检测神经元的光谱反应.当采用控制强度和波长的闪光进行测试时、它们的光谱反应曲线与绿色光感受器的光谱灵敏度曲线极其相似,峰值位于500nm处.然而采用运动的条纹进行测试时,它们的峰值却位于560nm处.当用一种颜色的运动图案作为目标放置在另一种颜色背景的前方测试时,发现存在某个目标的照明强度值能使反应下降到自发放电的水平,这表明自运动检测器无法检测这二种颜色的差别,即它们是色盲的、它主要接受来自绿色光感受器的信号.目标运动检测神经元的光谱反应特性与自运动检测神经元的不同,目标运动检测神经元在以380nm至580nm的范围中有着平坦的光谱反应曲线,有时在紫外频段出现峰有(?)前景与背景颜色不同且固定背景光的颜色与强度而改变前景的光强时,神经元的反应不会下降到自发放电水平,当背景为绿色而目标为另一个颜色.特别是兰色时,神经元反应强烈,但当背景为兰色而目标为绿色时,它们的反应相对较弱.这些结果表明目标运动检测神经元是对颜色敏感的.     

蜻蜒运动检测神经元的光谱反应

蜻蜒腹神经束上存在着自运动检测神经元和目标运动检测神经元.我们采用了两种视觉刺激条件来测试自运动检测神经元的光谱反应.当采用控制强度和波长的闪光进行测试时、它们的光谱反应曲线与绿色光感受器的光谱灵敏度曲线极其相似,峰值位于500nm处.然而采用运动的条纹进行测试时,它们的峰值却位于560nm处.当用一种颜色的运动图案作为目标放置在另一种颜色背景的前方测试时,发现存在某个目标的照明强度值能使反应下降到自发放电的水平,这表明自运动检测器无法检测这二种颜色的差别,即它们是色盲的、它主要接受来自绿色光感受器的信号.目标运动检测神经元的光谱反应特性与自运动检测神经元的不同,目标运动检测神经元在以380nm至580nm的范围中有着平坦的光谱反应曲线,有时在紫外频段出现峰有(?)前景与背景颜色不同且固定背景光的颜色与强度而改变前景的光强时,神经元的反应不会下降到自发放电水平,当背景为绿色而目标为另一个颜色.特别是兰色时,神经元反应强烈,但当背景为兰色而目标为绿色时,它们的反应相对较弱.这些结果表明目标运动检测神经元是对颜色敏感的.     

昆虫视觉系统平行加工通道研究

许多飞行的昆虫能够借助它们的视觉发现、跟踪、识别、捕获对它们有意义的目标,有些昆虫例如蜜蜂、蝴蝶、蜻蜓等与高等的动物一样,它们也具有空间视觉、运动视觉和颜色视觉,这些视觉信息是如何进行加工的,其加工通道之间的相互关系如何,阐明这些问题对解释视知觉的形成是很重要的.由于昆虫神经系统比人和哺乳动物神经系统简单得多,其神经元的数量亦少得多,因此我们选择了以昆虫的视觉系统为模型系统对此问题进行研究.本文把1986年以来我们对此问题开展行为分析和神经生理学研究所取得的结果以及与此有关的工作综述如下.     

视觉图象-背景相对运动分辨模型

在蝇视觉相对运动神经计算原理的基础上,提出一个新的视觉图象-背景相对运动分辨模型.它包括(1)视觉图象-背景相对运动分辨的初级视觉加工,即运动图象的滤波加工;(2)视觉图象-背景相对运动分辨的中级视觉加工,即滤波器输出的运动图象与亮度边缘信息的平行整合加工.考虑到传统的计算机是串行加工方式,难以实时处理信息量巨大的运动目标图象,而且计算的原理与神经计算有着根本区别,建立了一个生物学似真的实时运动信息加工神经网络电子装置,在此装置上对模型进行检验,实现了目标图象与复杂的背景图象的实时高分辨率相对运动分辨.提出视觉残象在运动图象滤波中起着重要作用;运动视觉的孔径问题应分成两部分来处理:孔径问题引起的运动图象与背景分离不完整的问题,通过视觉的多通道信息的平行整合能得到较好的解决,而孔径问题引起的速度方向测不准在视觉整合中只能得到一定的补偿。     

斑马鱼胚胎第一次卵裂过程中胞内钙信号的研究

钙离子作为广泛存在的细胞内信使物质,在动物胚胎早期发育过程中扮演重要角色.为了研究钙离子在斑马鱼胚胎发育过程中的空间分布和浓度变化,采用Fluo-4和Indo-1作为钙离子指示剂,利用激光共聚焦和双波长荧光比例成像技术,对斑马鱼胚胎第一次卵裂过程中的钙信号进行了详细的跟踪观察.在第一次卵裂过程中,斑马鱼胚胎的动物极顶端首先出现高钙斑,然后在分裂沟部位出现高浓度的钙信号,这一信号在卵裂过程中持续存在.利用Indo-1双波长荧光比例成像对上述过程中钙离子的时空分布进行了定量测定,表明,胞内钙离子在卵裂开始之前是均匀分布的,随着分裂沟的出现,其附近区域的钙浓度显著升高,而胞内其他区域的钙浓度则保持不变.双波长荧光比例成像排除了荧光染料分布不均匀造成的干扰,为钙信号与胚胎分裂的密切关系提供了确凿的定量依据.     

长沙城市森林土壤7种重金属含量特征及其潜在生态风险

采用调查分析方法,研究长沙城市森林土壤Zn、Cu、Ni、Pb、As、Cd、Hg7种重金属含量,并以长沙市土壤背景值和湖南省土壤背景值为参比值,采用Hakanson潜在生态危害指数法评价不同城市化梯度森林土壤重金属潜在生态风险.结果表明:7种重金属的平均含量均随着城市化程度提高而增加,Pb增幅最大,As增幅最小.同一城市化梯度森林土壤均以Zn平均含量最高,Cd最低,但均未超过土壤环境质量标准(GB15618-1995)Ⅱ级标准值.在城市中心区,桂花树林、樟树+桂花树混交林土壤Zn、Cu、Pb、As、Hg平均含量普遍较高,而樟树+马尾松混交林、桂花树+杜英混交林土壤Cu、Ni、As、Cd、Hg平均含量普遍较低,Pb、Zn空间分布差异明显,Cd、Ni、As空间分布比较均匀,Cu、Ni、Pb、As、Cd、Hg之间(除Cd与As、Ni之间外)均存在显著(P＜0.05)或极显著(P＜0.01)的相关性,与土壤有机质之间也呈显著(P＜0.05)或极显著(P＜0.01)的相关性,Zn、Cu、Ni、Pb、As、Cd、Hg主要是人为输入;中心区森林土壤重金属的潜在生态危害已达到中等生态危害程度,边缘区接近中等生态危害程度,郊区为轻微生态危害程度,Zn、Cu、Ni、Pb、As均为轻微生态危害程度,Cd、Hg已达到中等生态危害程度以上.     

丛枝菌根真菌对三叶草根系分泌的有机酸组分和含量的影响

比较洗根法、层析纸法和琼脂膜法收集土培条件下生长的菌根化和非菌根化三叶草根分泌物的效果。试验采用三室根箱装置 ,将根系与菌丝生长空间分开 ,三叶草生长 5 6d后 ,打开三室根箱装置 ,由于尼龙网的阻挡作用使根系均匀垫积在尼龙网内侧并形成根垫。分别采用洗根法、层析纸法和琼脂膜法 3种方法收集三叶草根系分泌物 ,并通过高效液相色谱方法测定分泌物中草酸、酒石酸、苹果酸、乳酸、乙酸、顺丁烯二酸、反丁烯二酸、柠檬酸、丁二酸等有机酸的含量。结果表明 :3种收集方法收集的三叶草分泌的有机酸无论在种类上还是在数量上都存在相当大的差别。从检测到的有机酸种类来看 ,琼脂膜法收集检测到苹果酸、乙酸、顺丁烯二酸、柠檬酸、丁二酸和乳酸 6种有机酸 ;洗根法收集的分泌物检测到酒石酸、苹果酸、乙酸、顺丁烯二酸、柠檬酸、丁二酸和乳酸 7种有机酸 ;层析纸法收集的分泌物检测到酒石酸、苹果酸、柠檬酸和乳酸 4种有机酸。从收集到的有机酸数量来看 ,洗根法收集到的有机酸总量为 2 9.97～ 2 32 .7μg/( gfw· 2 h) ;琼脂膜法集到的有机酸总量为 1 .5～ 7.3μg/( cm2· 2 h) ;层析纸法收集的有机酸总量为0 .2 3～ 6.5 8μg/( cm2 · 2 h)。丛枝菌根真菌侵染对三叶草根系分泌的有机酸的组分和含量都有一     

一株烟草疫霉拮抗菌MC4-2的鉴定、发酵条件优化及防效测定

[背景] 烟草黑胫病是由烟草疫霉（Phytophthora parasitica var.nicotianae）引起的真菌性病害,给我国烟叶生产带来了巨大损失。[目的] 在美洲大蠊肠道中分离并获得一株对烟草疫霉具有拮抗作用的菌株MC4-2,拟进一步明确该菌株的分类地位、优化发酵条件及对真菌性病害的防治效果。[方法] 通过形态特征、生理生化特征和16S rRNA基因序列等方法对菌株MC4-2进行鉴定;以细菌发酵液在波长为600 nm时的OD值为指标,采用单因素和正交试验的方法对菌株MC4-2的发酵培养基和发酵条件进行优化;通过在温室内进行盆栽防效试验,明确了该菌株对烟草黑胫病的防治效果。[结果] 通过平板对峙试验发现菌株MC4-2对烟草疫霉有较好的抑制效果,抑制率可达到64.04%;16S rRNA基因序列分析表明菌株MC4-2与枯草芽孢杆菌（Bacillus subtilis）相似度达到99%,形态特征和生理生化特征与该菌也基本符合;其优化培养基配方为：蛋白胨1.0 g、酵母浸粉1.0 g、蔗糖1.5 g、蒸馏水100 mL;最佳发酵条件为接种量8%、装液量30 mL、初始pH 6.0、转速210 r/min、温度32 ℃、培养时间60 h、光照时间12 h/d;室内盆栽试验结果表明,菌株MC4-2对烟草黑胫病的平均防效可达到63.86%。[结论] 为利用枯草芽孢杆菌MC4-2进行生物防治提供了重要参考依据。     

面向城市热环境格局时空演变的多重分形模式——以郑州市为例

与单分形相比,多重分形模型赋予了更多描述客观世界中复杂现象和事物的参数和手段,为更加准确和精细地刻画自然界中普遍存在的非线性现象和过程提供了一种有效途径。以河南省郑州市为研究对象,选取三期Landsat5-TM影像反演城市地表温度,并采用多重分形的理论与方法定量地探讨和研究城市热环境场纹理结构及其在时空中的分布特征,以及在不同的标度区间内热环境场与NDVI之间的关系。研究结果表明:20年间郑州市热场景观的多重分形谱奇异性指数最大值与最小值之差"α由0.6716减小为0.6419,奇异性指数最小值αmin和最大值αmax分别由1.4644、2.136减小为1.4304和2.0723,背景场奇异值α(fmax)由2.0111减小为2.0083,纹理测度最大值与最小值的分维数f(αmin)和f(αmax)分别由0.2354、1.4877增大为0.3412和1.734,意味着随着近20年经济的发展和城镇化率的提高,研究区域的热场纹理信息量不断减少,结构趋于简单,而纹理测度最大值、最小值和研究区温度有增大的趋势。对于位于郑州市不同位置且由不同景观斑块类型构成的区域,市区区域纹理测度波动幅度最小,而水体区域最大;市区纹理测度最大值和最小值的分维数最大,不同等级纹理像元数量分布比较均匀,空间簇聚程度高,而水体则相反,另从市区样本的多重分形参数来看,新开发的区域比老市区具有更小的αmin值和D2值。区域温度均值与多重分形参数之间呈现较强的线性相关性,而区域标准差与多重分形参数之间的相关性更强,线性变化的顺序依次为水体、农业用地、城郊和市区。另外,还利用C-A(浓度-面积)模型把2011年热场图像纹理结构分割为3个标度不变性区间,在此基础上讨论了奇异性指数α对区域温度与NDVI(归一化植被指数)之间关系的影响,发现斑块边缘的地表温度对NDVI最为敏感,且奇异性指数对不同标度区间的地表温度的本底值贡献是正向的,这些结论对热环境场的尺度转换研究具有一定的参考意义。     

Relative motion parallax and target localisation in the locust,Schistocerca gregaria

Summary This paper addresses two questions. 1. Does Schistocerca gregaria detect edges which are defined solely by velocity-contrast, that is by the difference in the image speeds generated by an object and its background when the locust moves? 2. Is the locust's ability to measure the distance of a target by motion parallax independent of the relative motion between target and back-ground?A locust walking on a circular platform was surrounded by a stationary cylinder which was lined with an irregular texture. Against this background, the insect viewed 3 stationary, equidistant targets. One target was black, one grey and the last was textured like the cylinder. Peers and jumps were aimed preferentially at the textured and black targets showing that targets can be detected by virtue of their velocity-contrast with the background. When textured targets were wide, jumps were seen to be aimed at the targets' edge.To assess whether velocity-contrast between target and background distorts distance-estimates, we used jump-velocity as a measure of apparent distance and examined how it varied with different arrangements of target and background. When a textured background is close to a target or the target is very wide, velocity contrast is small. The locust's jump-velocity is then 10% greater than when velocity-contrast is increased by making the background distant or the target narrow. This suggests that the locust is efficient at separating signals encoding absolute motion from those encoding relative motion.     

Saccadic tracking of a light grey target in the mantis,Tenodera aridifolia

I presented a horizontally moving square on a computer display to the mantis, Tenodera aridifolia, and examined the effects of target brightness and velocity, and background brightness on its tracking behavior. The mantis tracked a light grey square with more saccadic head movements than a black square, although these squares moved on a homogeneous background. The amplitude of saccades was larger when the light grey square moved at a lower velocity. The background brightness had little effect on the type (smooth or saccadic) of tracking behavior. These results suggest that the saccadic tracking of light grey objects on a homogeneous background may not be caused by low contrast, i.e., the difficulty in discriminating the object from the background. The possible biological significance of saccadic tracking on a homogenous background is discussed.     

背景光对图形视网膜电图空间调谐特性的影响

本工作应用背景光压抑闪光视网膜电图(FERG),考察对图形视网膜电图(PERG)的空间调谐特性的影响,并与无背景光时的结果进行比较。背景光使全屏幕闪光诱发的FERG基本压抑。在这种条件下,同屏幕的图形刺激所诱发的PERG的振幅显示一定的低空间频率衰减(LSFA)。FFT分析表明,当时间频率为3.91Hz时,PERG的二次谐波呈现十分明显的LS-FA,与无背景光时的结果吻合得很好;当时间频率为7.81Hz时,也表现出LSFA,而无背景光时则缺如。这些结果表明,无背景光时记录的PERG振幅在低空间频率区偏高确实是由于混杂有亮度特异性成分—FERG。但是,PERG振幅所显示的LSFA仍不如二次谐波那么明显,这可能是因为FERG中存在的非线性成分未为背景光所完全压抑,仍然混杂在低频区的PERG反应中。     

Edge Detection in Landing Budgerigars (Melopsittacus undulatus)

Background

While considerable scientific effort has been devoted to studying how birds navigate over long distances, relatively little is known about how targets are detected, obstacles are avoided and smooth landings are orchestrated. Here we examine how visual features in the environment, such as contrasting edges, determine where a bird will land.

Methodology/Principal Findings

Landing in budgerigars (Melopsittacus undulatus) was investigated by training them to fly from a perch to a feeder, and video-filming their landings. The feeder was placed on a grey disc that produced a contrasting edge against a uniformly blue background. We found that the birds tended to land primarily at the edge of the disc and walk to the feeder, even though the feeder was in the middle of the disc. This suggests that the birds were using the visual contrast at the boundary of the disc to target their landings. When the grey level of the disc was varied systematically, whilst keeping the blue background constant, there was one intermediate grey level at which the budgerigar''s preference for the disc boundary disappeared. The budgerigars then landed randomly all over the test surface. Even though this disc is (for humans) clearly distinguishable from the blue background, it offers very little contrast against the background, in the red and green regions of the spectrum.

Conclusions

We conclude that budgerigars use visual edges to target and guide landings. Calculations of photoreceptor excitation reveal that edge detection in landing budgerigars is performed by a color-blind luminance channel that sums the signals from the red and green photoreceptors, or, alternatively, receives input from the red double-cones. This finding has close parallels to vision in honeybees and primates, where edge detection and motion perception are also largely color-blind.     

Visual motion induces a forward prediction of spatial pattern

Cortical motion analysis continuously encodes image velocity but might also be used to predict future patterns of sensory input along the motion path. We asked whether this predictive aspect of motion is exploited by the human visual system. Targets can be more easily detected at the leading as compared to the trailing edge of motion [1], but this effect has been attributed to a nonspecific boost in contrast gain at the leading edge, linked to motion-induced shifts in spatial position [1-4]. Here we show that the detectability of a local sinusoidal target presented at the ends of a region containing motion is phase dependent at the leading edge, but not at the trailing edge. These two observations rule out a simple gain control mechanism that modulates contrast energy and passive filtering explanations, respectively. By manipulating the relative orientation of the moving pattern and target, we demonstrate that the resulting spatial variation in detection threshold along the edge closely resembles the superposition of sensory input and an internally generated predicted signal. These findings show that motion induces a forward prediction of spatial pattern that combines with the cortical representation of the future stimulus.     

Weber and noise adaptation in the retina of the toad Bufo marinus

Responses to flashes and steps of light were recorded intracellularly from rods and horizontal cells, and extracellularly from ganglion cells, in toad eyecups which were either dark adapted or exposed to various levels of background light. The average background intensities needed to depress the dark-adapted flash sensitivity by half in the three cell types, determined under identical conditions, were 0.9 Rh*s-1 (rods), 0.8 Rh*s-1 (horizontal cells), and 0.17 Rh*s-1 (ganglion cells), where Rh* denotes one isomerization per rod. Thus, there is a range (approximately 0.7 log units) of weak backgrounds where the sensitivity (response amplitude/Rh*) of rods is not significantly affected, but where that of ganglion cells (1/threshold) is substantially reduced, which implies that the gain of the transmission from rods to the ganglion cell output is decreased. In this range, the ganglion cell threshold rises approximately as the square root of background intensity (i.e. in proportion to the quantal noise from the background), while the maintained rate of discharge stays constant. The threshold response of the cell will then signal light deviations (from a mean level) of constant statistical significance. We propose that this type of ganglion cell desensitization under dim backgrounds is due to a post-receptoral gain control driven by quantal fluctuations, and term it noise adaptation in contrast to the Weber adaptation (desensitization proportional to the mean background intensity) of rods, horizontal cells, and ganglion cells at higher background intensities.     

Maximizing contrast resolution in the outer retina of mammals

The outer retina removes the first-order correlation, the background light level, and thus more efficiently transmits contrast. This removal is accomplished by negative feedback from horizontal cell to photoreceptors. However, the optimal feedback gain to maximize the contrast sensitivity and spatial resolution is not known. The objective of this study was to determine, from the known structure of the outer retina, the synaptic gains that optimize the response to spatial and temporal contrast within natural images. We modeled the outer retina as a continuous 2D extension of the discrete 1D model of Yagi et al. (Proc Int Joint Conf Neural Netw 1: 787–789, 1989). We determined the spatio-temporal impulse response of the model using small-signal analysis, assuming that the stimulus did not perturb the resting state of the feedback system. In order to maximize the efficiency of the feedback system, we derived the relationships between time constants, space constants, and synaptic gains that give the fastest temporal adaptation and the highest spatial resolution of the photoreceptor input to bipolar cells. We found that feedback which directly modulated photoreceptor calcium channel activation, as opposed to changing photoreceptor voltage, provides faster adaptation to light onset and higher spatial resolution. The optimal solution suggests that the feedback gain from horizontal cells to photoreceptors should be ∼0.5. The model can be extended to retinas that have two or more horizontal cell networks with different space constants. The theoretical predictions closely match experimental observations of outer retinal function.     

锯缘青蟹视网膜电图特性的昼夜节律变化

本文系统地分析了锯缘青蟹scylla serrata视网膜电图特性(敏感度、光谱敏感性和波形)的昼夜节律性变化。这种节律性可能主要是由于视网膜屏蔽色素位置的昼夜变化所致,但也可能存在另一种机制。     

The angular range of achromatic target detection by honey bees

Honeybees Apis mellifera were trained to enter a Y-maze and choose the arm with a rewarded disc presented against a grey background. The alternative arm displayed the unrewarded grey background alone. Training and testing were performed with the rewarding disc subtending different visual angles. The training disc was either achromatic and provided green contrast, or chromatic and provided the same amount of green contrast as the achromatic one. The bee-achromatic disc could be learned and detected by the bees whenever it subtended 5° or 10°, but not if it subtended 30°. The chromatic disc was learned well and detected at all three visual angles. However, at 5° the maximum level of correct choices was ca. 75% with the achromatic disc whilst it was ca. 90% with the chromatic one. Thus, the presence of chromatic contrast enhances considerably the level of correct choices for the same amount of green contrast. The lower threshold of achromatic target detection lies between 3.7° and 5°; the upper threshold between 15° and 10°. At the upper threshold, detection switches from chromatic-based to achromatic-based. Thus, in the context of target detection, the achromatic green contrast channel specialises in the detection of objects of reduced angular size, whilst the chromatic channels are specialised for objects of large angular size. We suggest that achromatic detectors with a centre-surround organisation are involved in the task of detecting achromatic targets. Accepted: 23 February 1998