Mushroom diversity in sustainable shade tea forest and the effect of fire damage

A survey of the biodiversity of wild macrofungi, including edible species yields, was carried out from 1 May to 30 September 2007 at four different forest types (in mainly Miang tea forest). The plots 100 m², comprised a tea garden with a few planted canopy tree species (37.2% canopy cover), a cultivated sustainable tea forest (80.2% canopy cover), an abandoned sustainable tea forest (89.8% canopy cover), and an abandoned sustainable tea forest that had suffered fire damage (72.9% canopy cover). All visible mushrooms were collected during weekly forays. Macro-characters of the fungi were annotated and photographed by digital camera and the fungi were identified to genera and morphospecies (e.g. Agaricus sp.1, Agaricus sp.2). The fresh weight of wild edible mushrooms produced in the plots was also recorded during this period. The biodiversity of macrofungi in abandoned sustainable tea forest was highest with 115 species in 47 genera, followed by cultivated sustainable tea forest with 85 species in 42 genera and fire damaged abandoned sustainable tea forest with 48 species in 25 genera, while only 19 species belonging to 15 genera were found in the tea garden. Twenty-one species belonging to nine genera with a total of 60.9 kg of edible fungi were collected throughout this study. The fresh weight of edible mushrooms was recorded with the highest fresh weight (25.3 kg) collected from the abandoned sustainable tea forest, followed by 18.2 kg in the cultivated sustainable tea forest, while in the fire damaged sustainable tea forest 16.4 kg were collected and only 1 kg was collected in the tea garden. Abandoned sustainable tea forest contained a greater shade tree biodiversity and higher canopy cover than other plots. This area has a generally higher humidity, a greater ground litter cover, a greater number of microhabitats, a greater number of trees that can form mycorrhizal associations and this probably accounts for the higher diversity of macrofungi and production of edible mushrooms. The fire damaged sustainable tea forest had lower mushroom diversity and edible mushroom production possibly due to the loss of litter and lower tree diversity. The tea garden supported a poor diversity of mushrooms and almost no edible mushrooms. Shade tea forest (Miang tea forest) is a good method to produce tea in a sustainable way as it maintains diversity of mushrooms and other organisms and could be developed as an alternative to shade coffee.     

Entomopathogenic Fusarium species: a review of their potential for the biological control of insects,implications and prospects

The genus Fusarium is noted for including important plant pathogens and mycotoxin producers. Furthermore, many Fusarium lineages have been reported to be efficient in controlling insects and to exhibit promising characteristics for agricultural pest control such as causing high mortality rates and having fast action and abundant sporulation. In this review we present a survey of peer-reviewed papers published from 2000 to 2019, demonstrating the widespread pathogenicity of Fusarium to insects. This survey was made using search strings in a number of databases. We list the major complexes and species of Fusarium reported as entomopathogenic and highlight the features of interest for insect control as well as the advantages and implications of this practice. Out of a total of forty papers, at least 30 species and 273 isolates of Fusarium were reported as pathogenic to at least one species of insect. Ten complexes of Fusarium species harbor entomopathogenic fungi, of which F. incarnatum-equiseti, F. fujikuroi, F. oxysporum and F. solani (= Neocosmospora solani) species complexes represented the most abundant number of entomopathogenic strains. The entomopathogenic interactions of these fungi have received greater attention in recent years, but much remains to be explored, especially regarding the specificity of these fungi for the host insect, the production of undesirable secondary metabolites, and side-effect and safety tests organisms not targets. Detailed investigations in this regard will be crucial if we are to fully exploit the potential of Fusarium for controlling insect pests.     

Aphids (Hemiptera,Aphididae) on ornamental plants in greenhouses in Bulgaria

Investigations on the species composition and host range of aphids on ornamental greenhouse plants in Bulgaria was conducted over a period of five years, from 2008 to 2012. Twenty greenhouses, growing ornamentals for landscaping, plant collections and other purposes were observed. They were located in the regions of Sofia, Plovdiv, Smolyan, Pavlikeni, Varna and Burgas. The total number of collected aphid samples was 279. Their composition included 33 aphid species and one subspecies from 13 genera and 5 subfamilies. Twenty-eight species were found to belong to subfamily Aphidinae. Almost 70 % of all recorded species were polyphagous. The most widespread aphid species was Myzus persicae, detected in 13 greenhouses all year round, followed by Aulacorthum solani (10 greenhouses) and Aphis gossypii (9 greenhouses). The widest host range was shown by Myzus persicae (43 hosts), Aulacorthum solani (32 hosts) and Aulacorthum circumflexum (23 hosts).The list of host plants includes 114 species from 95 genera and 58 families. The greatest variety of aphid species was detected on Hibiscus (9 species). Out of all aphid samples 12.9 % were collected on Hibiscus and 6.8 %, on Dendranthema. The greatest variety of aphid species was detected on Hibiscus (9 species).Periphyllus californiensis and Aphis (Aphis) fabae mordvilkoi are reported for the first time for Bulgaria. Furthermore, Aphis spiraecola has been found in new localities and has widened its host range in this country.     

Contribution to the knowledge on macrofungi in mangroves of the southwest India

Forty-six species of macrofungi (27 genera) were recorded in 25 quadrats (625 m²) in five mangroves of the southwest India (Paduhithlu, Nadikudru, Sasihithlu, Thokottu and Batapady). A maximum of 20 species occurred in Sasihithlu with a highest diversity value. Four species belong to coregroup ( ≥ 10 sporocarps/quadrat), while 29 species were confined to specific mangrove (exclusive species). Out of 1591 sporocarps, Paduhithlu supported the highest number of sporocarps (564) followed by Nadikudru (502). Rarefaction curves showed a steep increase in the expected number of species against the number of sporocarps in Sasihithlu. Pearson correlation between biotic factors (species richness, sporocarp richness and species diversity) and edaphic factors (air and soil) was not significantly correlated. Woody litter supported the highest number of macrofungi (26 species) followed by soil (22 species) and least in leaf litter (7 species). Up to one-third of macrofungi recovered in mangroves are economically valuable (edible, medicinal and ectomycorrhizal).     

Distribution of iron, cobalt, zinc and selenium in macrofungi

Samples of wild growing ectomycorrhizal and terrestrial saprobic macrofungi (mushrooms) were collected from unpolluted areas and analyzed for their iron, cobalt, zinc and selenium content. Trace elements were determined using long-term instrumental neutron activation analysis. In total, 217 samples, including 87 species of ectomycorrhizal fungi and 43 species of terrestrial saprobes, were examined. Distribution of trace element contents in ectomycorrhizal and saprobic macrofungi was investigated; results are thoroughly compared with previously published data. Doubtful literature data and ability of macrofungi to accumulate/concentrate investigated elements are discussed. Hygrophoropsis aurantiaca was found to concentrate Fe and Russula atropurpurea was confirmed as an effective Zn-accumulating species. Distribution of Se in ectomycorrhizal species was obviously different from that in saprobic species; selenium contents were higher in saprobic species (mostly above 2 ppm).     

Diversity and ecological distribution of macrofungi in the Laojun Mountain region,southwestern China

Surveys of the macrofungi associated with eight different vegetation types in the Laojun Mountain region of southwestern China yielded approximately 520 species belonging to 175 genera. Species richness and diversity were highest in mixed conifer and broadleaf forests and deciduous broadleaf forests. In typical forests of temperate regions of the world, there are five dominant genera of ectomycorrhizal macrofungi. The distribution patterns of species in these genera for the different vegetation types indicate that they are able to associate with a wide variety of different trees. Analysis of data for common macrofungal species and taxonomic similarity of the communities present in the eight vegetation types suggest that the greater the differences in the plant species that comprise the vegetation, the less similar are the common macrofungal species associated with the most common host plants. These same data also show that some species of macrofungi occur only in one or two vegetation types. There were 156 species of edible fungi recorded from the different vegetation types, and these fungi appear to be abundant in the Laojun Mountain region. At different positions along the elevation gradient, positive correlations existed with respect to the relationship between species richness and diversity, and the general trend was for macrofungal species richness and diversity to decrease with increasing elevation, with the numbers of species recorded being significantly lower at the very highest elevation. The relative dominance of certain taxa in the assemblage of species present was found to increase with increasing elevation, and variation in the evenness component of diversity was slight. As such, the differences in dominance and evenness were also not significant (P > 0.05). Macrofungal species richness was slightly more diverse on shaded slopes than on more exposed (sunny) slopes, and the differences in species diversity, dominance and evenness were relatively minor. This suggests that slope aspect may only weakly influence the distribution of macrofungal species in the Laojun Mountain region.     

Occurrence and coexistence of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and dark septate fungi in aquatic macrophytes in a tropical river-floodplain system

In this study, carried out in four water bodies in the Upper Paraná River floodplain, we assessed the occurrence of root colonization by arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) and dark septate fungi (DSF), as well as the AMF species richness associated with 24 species of aquatic macrophytes belonging to different life forms. AMF were found in nine species of macrophytes and DSF in 16 species among the 24 investigated. AM colonization occurred mainly in eudicotiledons (five of the six species evaluated) and the Paris morphology was the most common type. Co-occurrence of AMF and DSF was observed in seven species of macrophytes (Commelinaceae sp. 1, Limnobium laevigatum (H.B.K. ex Willd) Heine, Hygrophila cf. costata, Myriophyllum brasiliense (Camb), Polygonum acuminatum Kunth, P. ferrugineum Wedd and P. stelligerum Cham). Four species of macrophytes (Pistia stratiotes L., Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms, Egeria najas Planch and Nymphaea amazonum Mart. & Zucc) were not colonized by any type of fungi. In total, 27 morphotypes of AMF were recorded, and spores occurred both in the rhizosphere of macrophytes whose roots were internally colonized by AMF and in non-colonized macrophytes. Acaulospora delicata, Acaulospora aff. laevis, Acaulospora longula, Glomus lamellosum, Glomus luteum and NID 1 (a non-identified species) were the most frequent species. Samples collected close to the roots of N. amazonum had the highest AMF richness (20 species), but this plant was not colonized by fungi. A species richness curve indicated that more root-associated fungi than reported here are likely present in this floodplain.     

Wood-inhabiting,polyporoid fungi in aspen-dominated forests managed for biomass in the U.S. Lake States

To better understand the potential long-term effects of biomass harvesting on biodiversity, the polyporoid fungi community was characterized from 120 plots in four aspen-dominated forests in Minnesota. Four deadwood variables (substratum species, substratum type, decay class and diameter class) were recorded for each polyporoid species occurrence. A total of 2 358 polyporoid occurrences, representing 86 species, were recorded on 16 tree species. Eight species (Trichaptum biforme, Bjerkandera adusta, Trametes hirsuta, Phellinus tremulae, Fomes fomentarius, Irpex lacteus, Fomitopsis ochracea and Antrodia serialis) made up 67 % of occurrences. Four polyporoid species (Funalia trogii, Pycnoporellus fulgens, Rigidoporus crocatus and Skeletocutis chrysella) are potentially rare and/or threatened in the Lake States. Non-metric multidimensional scaling and rarefaction curves demonstrated that small diameter substrata (especially those <5 cm) most strongly influenced polyporoid species occurrences. Aspen-dominated systems show great potential for biomass production, but these forests also support a species-rich community of polyporoid fungi, including potentially rare species.     

Assessment of Anthropogenic Influence on Antarctic Mycobiota in Areas of Russian Polar Stations

This article presents the results of microscopic fungi complexes in the areas of five Russian polar stations in East Antarctica and the Subantarctic. A total of 104 microfungal species have been identified. Seventyseven fungal species have been detected in samples of soils and anthropogenic materials from polar stations of East Antarctica (Progress, Mirny, Molodezhnaya, and Druzhnaya 4) using mycological methods while, in the Bellingshausen station (Subantarctic), we have isolated 87 micromycete species. The number of fungi in soils varies from individual propagules in control soils to 94000 per 1 g of soil in contaminated areas. The largest number of species is represented by the genus Penicillium (26 species). Fungal species that form the core of mycobiota in most of the studied habitats have been identified. For soils of East Antarctica, it is formed by species of the genera Aureobasidium, Cadophora, Pseudogymnoascus (Geomyces), Thelebolus, and Phoma. Significant differences are established between the mycobiota of East Antarctica and that of the Subantarctic. At the same time, a general trend towards an increase in fungal species diversity and number in the areas of polar stations compared to the control (clean) sites for all studied areas is recorded. These data indicate that a significant part of micromycetes is introduced into the Antarctic by humans (anthropogenic invasion).     

Ectomycorrhizal fungal sporocarp diversity and discovery of new taxa in Dicymbe monodominant forests of the Guiana Shield

Ectomycorrhizal (ECM) fungi historically were considered poorly represented in Neotropical forests but in the central Guiana Shield substantial areas are dominated by leguminous ECM trees. In the Upper Potaro Basin of Western Guyana, ECM fungi were sampled for 7?years during the rainy seasons of 2000–2008 in three 1-ha plots in primary monodominant forests of the ECM canopy tree Dicymbe corymbosa (Fabaceae subfam. Caesalpinioideae). Over the plot sampling period sporocarps of 126 species of putative or confirmed ECM fungi were recovered. These taxa represented 13 families and 25 genera of primarily Agaricomycetes, but also Ascomycota (Elaphomycetaceae), the majority of which are new to science. Russulaceae contained the most species (20 Russula; 9 Lactarius), followed by Boletaceae (8 genera, 25 spp.), Clavulinaceae (17 Clavulina), and Amanitaceae (16 Amanita). An additional 46 species of ECM fungi were collected in forests of the Upper Potaro Basin outside the study plots between 2000 and 2010, bringing the regional number of ECM species known from sporocarps to 172. This is the first long-term ECM macrofungal dataset from an ECM-dominated Neotropical forest, and sporocarp diversity is comparable to that recorded for ECM-diverse temperate and boreal forests. While a species accumulation curve indicated that ECM sporocarp diversity was not fully recovered inside of the plots,?~80% of the total species were recovered in the first year. Sequence data from ECM roots have confirmed the ECM status of 56 taxa represented by corresponding sporocarp data. However,?>50% of ECM fungal species from roots remain undiscovered as sporocarps, leading to a conservative estimate of?>?250 ECM species at the Potaro site. Dicymbe forests in Guyana are a hotspot for ECM fungal diversity in the Neotropics.     

抚育间伐对油松人工林下大型真菌的影响

真菌在森林凋落物分解过程中起重要作用,研究间伐如何影响真菌进而影响凋落物分解,对深入了解间伐调控人工林凋落物分解有重要意义。本文以抚育间伐后的中龄油松人工林为研究对象,设立对照（I）、轻度（II）、中度（III）和强度（IV）4种间伐强度,于2011年对间伐后林下大型真菌进行两次调查,分析了不同间伐强度下大型真菌的科的分布、优势种组成和生态指标（包括丰富度指数、多样性指数和均匀度指数）。结果表明：（1）8月、9月采集到的大型真菌分别为35种和25种,分属13个科和10个科;（2）在大型真菌出菇期,间伐改变了大型真菌的优势种组成,对照林下大型真菌优势种最初为外生菌根菌（粘盖乳牛肝菌 血红铆钉菇）后变为腐生菌（大盖小皮伞和脐顶小皮伞）,而间伐后林下优势种始终为腐生菌;（3）间伐影响大型真菌的生态指标,中度间伐林下大型真菌丰富度和多样性指数最高。总之,适度间伐不仅有利于提高林下大型真菌的丰富度与多样性,同时使其群落结构发生改变,群落优势种由外生菌根菌变为以分解凋落物为主的腐生菌,可促进凋落物的分解和养分循环。     

Evaluation of lignocellulolytic activities of ten fungal species able to degrade poplar wood

The study of wood decay fungi that naturally biodegrade lignocellulosic polymers has been steadily increasing during the past two decades due to their industrial and innovative applications. In this work, we compare ten species of lignicolous macrofungi which develop fruiting bodies on poplar in relation to their capacity for growing on poplar wood chips and sawdust and of secreting cell wall degrading enzymes. All the fungi studied appeared to be able to grow well in these conditions and to secrete cellulase and hemicellulase, Mn-peroxidase and cellobiose dehydrogenase, while Li-peroxidase and laccase were produced by seven and six out of the ten species, respectively. Variability in the levels of all these enzymatic activities was assessed. Two species, never investigated before, showed the best performances as regards production of cellulolytic and hemicellulolytic activities (Lenzites warnieri) and Mn-peroxidase (Perenniporia meridionalis). The highest laccase level was detected in the well known plant pathogen Fomes fomentarius, and the brown-rot Daedalea quercina proved to be the best producer of lignin peroxidase and cellobiose dehydrogenase.     

Fungal endophytes from cactus Cereus jamacaru in Brazilian tropical dry forest: a first study

Endophytic fungi live within the healthy tissues of plants and can promote host species tolerance to different environmental stresses. However, most studies have been of plants in humid environments, and there are few reports of the benefits of such associations for plants of extreme environments. Our aims were to identify endophytic fungi using morphological taxonomy, to explore richness and estimate species frequency in a cactus, C. jamacaru, in Brazilian tropical dry forest (Caatinga). We thus identified 59 taxa, corresponding to 69.7 % of the total number of isolates; the other 30.3 % were sterile mycelia. Cladosporium cladosporioides and Fusarium oxysporum were the species most commonly isolated, followed by Acremonium implicatum, Aureobasidium pullulans, Trichoderma viride, Chrysonilia sitophila, and Aspergillus flavus. Forty-seven species are recorded for the first time as endophytic fungi of cacti, and 18 others as endophytes for Brazil; this suggests that C. jamacaru harbors a highly diverse fungal community as measured by a diversity index. However, species accumulation curves suggest that our study still underestimates endophyte diversity because it does not provide an exhaustive sample. To our knowledge, this is the first report of endophytic fungi from C. jamacaru in tropical dry forests.     

The role of bracket fungi in creating alpha diversity of invertebrates in the Białowieża National Park,Poland

Bracket fungi are seen mainly as the cause of economic losses in forestry, and their role as creators of biodiversity is relatively poorly understood. The aim of the study was defining the manner in which the degree of decay (DD) of the fruiting bodies determines the character of the invertebrate assemblages colonising them. The effect of this group of fungi on the modification of biodiversity of invertebrates (Aranae, Opiliones, Pseudoscorpionida, two groups of mites—Mesostigmata and Oribatida, and Collembola and Insecta) was investigated by analyzing 100 fruiting bodies of 10 species of bracket fungi divided into four DD classes. The material was collected at Białowieża National Park, which is considered to be the largest area of natural forests in the North European Plain. 16 068 invertebrate individuals classified into 224 species were obtained. Oribatid mites (12 543 individuals) constituted the largest group of individuals, which were classified into 115 species with the most numerous Carabodes femoralis (8,811 individuals). Representatives of this group of mites have been reported previously in the publications on bracket fungi; however, the contributions of Oribatida and other groups of invertebrates were not broadly compared. Moreover, the species such as Hoploseius mariae and H. oblongus, which were predominantly found in fruiting bodies of bracket fungi, have also been discerned. The invertebrate fauna differs depending on DD of the samples: In the more decayed samples, a higher number of both individuals and species were recorded compared to the samples with lower DDs; however, this trend proved to be nonlinear. The DCA and cluster analysis revealed a similarity of the invertebrate assemblages from the 2 DD and 4 DD samples. They also indicated that the group 3 DD differed the most from all the other samples. The indicator species analysis identified species characteristic to individual DDs: For group 1 DD, it was, for example, Hoploseius oblongus; for 2 DD—Orchesella bifasciata; and for 3 DD—Chernes cimicoides, while for 4 DD—Dinychus perforatus.     

Phylogenetic patterns of ant–fungus associations indicate that farming strategies,not only a superior fungal cultivar,explain the ecological success of leafcutter ants

To elucidate fungicultural specializations contributing to ecological dominance of leafcutter ants, we estimate the phylogeny of fungi cultivated by fungus‐growing (attine) ants, including fungal cultivars from (i) the entire leafcutter range from southern South America to southern North America, (ii) all higher‐attine ant lineages (leafcutting genera Atta, Acromyrmex; nonleafcutting genera Trachymyrmex, Sericomyrmex) and (iii) all lower‐attine lineages. Higher‐attine fungi form two clades, Clade‐A fungi (Leucocoprinus gongylophorus, formerly Attamyces) previously thought to be cultivated only by leafcutter ants, and a sister clade, Clade‐B fungi, previously thought to be cultivated only by Trachymyrmex and Sericomyrmex ants. Contradicting this traditional view, we find that (i) leafcutter ants are not specialized to cultivate only Clade‐A fungi because some leafcutter species ranging across South America cultivate Clade‐B fungi; (ii) Trachymyrmex ants are not specialized to cultivate only Clade‐B fungi because some Trachymyrmex species cultivate Clade‐A fungi and other Trachymyrmex species cultivate fungi known so far only from lower‐attine ants; (iii) in some locations, single higher‐attine ant species or closely related cryptic species cultivate both Clade‐A and Clade‐B fungi; and (iv) ant–fungus co‐evolution among higher‐attine mutualisms is therefore less specialized than previously thought. Sympatric leafcutter ants can be ecologically dominant when cultivating either Clade‐A or Clade‐B fungi, sustaining with either cultivar‐type huge nests that command large foraging territories; conversely, sympatric Trachymyrmex ants cultivating either Clade‐A or Clade‐B fungi can be locally abundant without achieving the ecological dominance of leafcutter ants. Ecological dominance of leafcutter ants therefore does not depend primarily on specialized fungiculture of L. gongylophorus (Clade‐A), but must derive from ant–fungus synergisms and unique ant adaptations.     

Metabolomics Unravel Contrasting Effects of Biodiversity on the Performance of Individual Plant Species

In spite of evidence for positive diversity-productivity relationships increasing plant diversity has highly variable effects on the performance of individual plant species, but the mechanisms behind these differential responses are far from being understood. To gain deeper insights into the physiological responses of individual plant species to increasing plant diversity we performed systematic untargeted metabolite profiling on a number of herbs derived from a grassland biodiversity experiment (Jena Experiment). The Jena Experiment comprises plots of varying species number (1, 2, 4, 8, 16 and 60) and number and composition of functional groups (1 to 4; grasses, legumes, tall herbs, small herbs). In this study the metabolomes of two tall-growing herbs (legume: Medicago x varia; non-legume: Knautia arvensis) and three small-growing herbs (legume: Lotus corniculatus; non-legumes: Bellis perennis, Leontodon autumnalis) in plant communities of increasing diversity were analyzed. For metabolite profiling we combined gas chromatography coupled to time-of-flight mass spectrometry (GC-TOF-MS) and UPLC coupled to FT-ICR-MS (LC-FT-MS) analyses from the same sample. This resulted in several thousands of detected m/z-features. ANOVA and multivariate statistical analysis revealed 139 significantly changed metabolites (30 by GC-TOF-MS and 109 by LC-FT-MS). The small-statured plants L. autumnalis, B. perennis and L. corniculatus showed metabolic response signatures to increasing plant diversity and species richness in contrast to tall-statured plants. Key-metabolites indicated C- and N-limitation for the non-leguminous small-statured species B. perennis and L. autumnalis, while the metabolic signature of the small-statured legume L. corniculatus indicated facilitation by other legumes. Thus, metabolomic analysis provided evidence for negative effects of resource competition on the investigated small-statured herbs that might mechanistically explain their decreasing performance with increasing plant diversity. In contrast, taller species often becoming dominant in mixed plant communities did not show modified metabolite profiles in response to altered resource availability with increasing plant diversity. Taken together, our study demonstrates that metabolite profiling is a strong diagnostic tool to assess individual metabolic phenotypes in response to plant diversity and ecophysiological adjustment.     

Colonizing success of saprotrophic and ectomycorrhizal basidiomycetes on islands

The biodiversity of saprotrophic and ectomycorrhizal basidiomycetous macrofungi growing on seven islands in central Japan were compared to examine colonizing success within the context of island biogeography theory. Two hypotheses were tested: that the number of the fungal species depends on island area and that the slope of the species-area curve for saprotrophic and ectomycorrhizal macrofungi differ in response to differences in their nutritional requirements. Data for the number of species that were identified based on sporocarps closely fit the conventional species-area curve. The slopes of the species-area curve for saprotrophic fungi (0.316) and ectomycorrhizal fungi (0.469) were similar to those reported for insects and birds, and plants on other archipelagos, respectively. In addition species-area curve data showed that ectomycorrhizal fungi colonized only islands > 630 m(2). While the species composition of saprotrophic fungi found on any pair of islands was positively correlated to the ratio of the areas of the island pair being compared (smaller/larger), no such relationship was observed for ectomycorrhizal fungi. Conversely similar ectomycorrhizal fungi, mostly those belonging to the genera Amanita, Inocybe, Boletellus and Russula, were found on pairs of islands with similar vegetation in the same geographic region. These results suggested that the colonizing success by ectomycorrhizal fungi is limited by host plant diversity, which is lower on smaller islands, instead of restricted immigration resulting from limited spore dispersal ability.     

What determines species composition and diversity of hypogeous fungi in the diet of small mammals? A comparison across mammal species,habitat types and seasons in Central European mountains

Interactions between diverse groups of organisms influence the functioning and diversity of ecosystems. Salient examples of such relationships are those among hypogeous fungi, trees and mycophagous mammals. To investigate the role of small mammals in transporting fungal spores within and outside forests as well as the influence of seasons, habitats and species on small mammal mycophagy, we set up a study in the Pieniny Mts, Western Carpathians (Southern Poland). The droppings of small mammals were collected during live trapping in July and September 2016 and 2017, to analyze richness, composition and frequency of fungal spores present in faeces. The yellow-necked mouse Apodemus flavicollis, the bank vole Myodes glareolus and the common vole Microtus arvalis were the most frequently trapped. Spores of 27 fungal taxa from 16 genera were retrieved from nearly 70% of faecal samples of rodents and shrews, with up to 9 spore taxa recorded per sample. Spore diversity in samples was higher in September than in July, although seasonal variation was year and animal dependent. The highest mean number of fungal taxa per sample was recorded for the bank vole and the yellow-necked mouse, with the former species showing a higher degree of mycophagy. The two rodents differed in the average frequencies of consumed fungi in samples, which could result from some degree of specialization in the choice of particular fungal species, as shown by the laboratory-based experiment. Within particular animal species, differences in the fungal diet were found between seasons. The spores of hypogeous fungi were transported from forests to meadows mostly by the yellow-necked mouse and, to a lesser extent, by the common vole. However, both, the diversity and the number of transported spores diminished with distance from the forest edge.     

Diversity of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in greenhouse soils continuously planted to watermelon in North China

In North China, watermelon is grown in commercial greenhouses in a continuous monoculture and with high application rates of manure or compost. The aim of this study was to determine how the diversity of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) in these soils changed over long periods (0 to 20 years) of monoculture. AMF in control soils (from fields not replanted with watermelon and located near the greenhouses) and in greenhouses (in Daxing, Beijing, and Weifang, Shandong) that had been continuously replanted with watermelon for 5, 10, 15, or 20 years (three greenhouses per year per location) were identified and quantified based on spore morphology and on denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE). The total number of AMF species and genera were 13 and 3 in soils replanted for 5–20 years and 19 and 4 in control soils. AMF species richness (SR), the Shannon–Wiener index (H), and spore density declined as the number of years in which watermelon was replanted increased. The available phosphorus, potassium, and nitrogen in the soil increased as the number of years in which watermelon was replanted increased. Values for SR and H were higher when based on DGGE than on spore morphology. The results suggest that current greenhouse practices in North China reduce the AMF diversity in the soil.     

In vitro saprotrophic basidiomycetes tolerance to pendimethalin

Pendimethalin is a dinitroaniline herbicide classified among the persistent-bioaccumulative toxics. In this paper, the tolerance to this herbicide has been studied in isolates of basidiomycetes (10 species including 9 wood-rotting and 1 litter fungi), collected in different areas of the Campania region (South Italy). The isolates were grown on two different agar media, rich and poor for the presence/absence of dextrose and NH₄NO₃, and amended with 0, 100 and 500 ppm herbicide. The mycelial growth was recorded daily, and statistical analysis of fungal growth rates, determined via linear regression, allowed us to compare the hyphal extension of various macrofungi in presence of herbicide. These data represent the adaptation capacity of the fungal organisms to the peculiar environmental situation. In amended agar, all fungi exhibited a certain tolerance to pendimethalin and, normally, the fungal growth decreased with the increasing of pollutant concentration. Nevertheless, in some cases, the difference of ground reflected the different agar media. In fact, the growth of Agrocybe aegerita, in rich agar decreased with the increase of herbicide dose, while in poor agar it increased with the pollutant. Among the examined fungi, A. aegerita was the species which resulted the most tolerant to herbicide, showing growth to about 70% of the control to the highest concentrations of pollutant and for the two different agar media.Scientific relevance of the paperNo published report is available regarding pendimethalin herbicide biodegradation with basidiomycetes; therefore this work represented the first and preliminary investigation as regards. It's directed to determine the fungal tolerance to the pollutant.