Blood groups of pig-tailed macaques (Macaca nemestrina).

The human-type A-B-O blood groups of 57 pig-tailed macaques (Macaca nemestrina) were determined and the calculated gene frequencies, O = 0.8908, A = 0.0825 and B = 0.0267, gave excellent fit with the hypothesis of inheritance by triple allelic genes. In tests for simian-type blood groups with rhesus, baboon and crab-eating macaque immune antisera, it was shown that the red cells of pig-tailed macaques are polymorphic for several simian-type specificities defined by those cross-reacting sera. Pig-tailed macaques share with other macaque species the complex Drh-graded blood group system, which seems to occupy a special role among red cell antigens of macaques. Normal sera of three female macaques contained spontaneous isoagglutinins which selectively agglutinated the red cells of some pig-tailed as well as stump-tailed macaques.     

Blood groups of the mantled howler monkey (Alouatta palliata).

Fifty-two howler monkeys were tested for their human-type A-B-O blood groups. All were group B, as shown by the presence of B and H in their saliva, and anti-A in serum. The B-like agglutinogen of their red cells is common to all New World monkey species tested, and is of different origin and significance than their true A-B-O blood group. Differences among the B-like agglutinogens of the red cells of howler monkeys, marmosets, rabbits and humans group B were demonstrated, and limited tests have also been performed to study the biochemical basis of the anti-B reactions.     

Blood groups of anthropoid apes and their relationship to human blood groups

Affinity between blood groups of man and those of anthropoid apes is reflected not only in similarities or identities of reactions of the red cells with many specific typing reagents, but also in overall structures of some of the main blood group systems defined in man and in apes.Besides specificities of human-type, such as A-B-O, M-N, Rh-Hr, I-i, etc. known to be present on the red cells of various species of apes, specific reagents were produced by iso- or cross-immunization of chimpanzees that detect red cell specificities characteristic for apes only. Some of those specificities were found to be shared by several ape species and to fall into separate blood group systems that are counterparts of the human blood group systems. Recently obtained serological, as well as population data, indicate that the chimpanzee R-C-E-F blood group system is the counterpart of the human Rh-Hr system. Similarly to the Rh-Hr system, it is built around a main antigen, the R^c antigen, to which secondary specificities are attached by means of multiple allelic genes. The R^c is not only the principal factor of the chimpanzee R-C-E-F group system, but also constitutes a direct link with the human Rh-Hr blood group system, since anti-R^c reagents also detect Rh₀ specificity on the human red cells. Another chimpanzee blood group system, the V-A-B-D system, is counterpart of the M-N-S-s system, and is built around the central antigen V^c. the V^c is not only the principal specificity of the chimpanzee V-A-B-D system, but it also constitutes the direct link with the human M-N-S-s system since anti-V^c reagent gives with chimpanzee red cells reactions parralleling those obtained with anti-N lectin (N^v) while in tests with human red cells it detects specificity identical or closely related to the Mi^a specificity.     

Human-type ABO blood groups as genetic markers for the management of a squirrel monkey (Saimiri sciureus) breeding colony

The human-type ABO blood groups were determined for 94 families of the squirrel monkey which included 151 animals. Four phenotypes of ABO blood groups (A, B, AB, and O) were detected. Family analysis revealed that the human-type ABO blood groups in this species were governed by three alleles, codominantA andB and silentO. There were intraspecific differences in the distribution of phenotypes and gene frequency among three populations imported by different routes at different times. The usefulness of ABO blood groups for defining the genetic variability of a squirrel monkey breeding colony through successive generations is discussed on the basis of the difference in distribution of ABO blood groups between wild-originated parental and its first colony-born populations.     

Blood groups of baboons. Population genetics of feral animals

Blood and saliva from 495 Ethiopan baboons were collected in the field and tested for their human-type A-B-O groups while 493 blood samples were tested for their simian-type blood factors A^p, B^p, C^p, G^p, N^p, ca and hu. Four series of feral animals were tested: 194 olive baboons, a troop of 82 and another of 90 hamadryas baboons, and a series of 129 baboons classified as olive/hamadryas hybrids. In addition, 126 baboons from other sources were tested for their human-type A-B-O groups and 131 for their simian-type blood groups. Human-type groups A, B and AB but not group O were found in combined series of 621 animals. Gene frequency analysis also indicated the absence of group O. Population analysis of the data obtained for the 493 Ethiopian baboons has shown that the simian-type blood groups A^p and B^p are independent of one another. In contrast B^p and G^p appear to be determined by corresponding allelic genes; if confirmed by population data on additional series of animals, this would define the first baboon blood group system found. There is a close association between the blood group specificities ca and hu, the exact nature of which still remains to be clarified. Blood group ca, originally believed to be species specific, is found to be polymorphic in both olive baboons and hamadryas as well as in the hybrids; hu, on the other hand, present in all hamadryas tested, is polymorphic only in olive baboons.     

Polymorphism of glycophorins in nonhuman primate erythrocytes

Using immunoblotting techniques and polyclonal antisera to human erythrocyte glycophorin, we show that erythrocytes of several species of nonhuman primates, including representatives of anthropoid apes (19 chimpanzees, 3 gorillas, 6 orangutans, and 3 gibbons) and Old World monkeys (3 baboons, 5 rhesus monkeys, and 6 cynomologus macaques), contain human glycophorin-like molecules. Each species displays a unique glycophorin profile; in anthropoid apes the profile is more complex than in Old World monkeys and more similar to that seen in humans. The chimpanzee was the only species in which human -like glycophorin was detected but it differed from its human counterpart in electrophoretic mobility and reaction with M-specific monoclonal antibody. In contrast to humans, highly polymorphic glycophorin profiles were observed in each species of anthropoid apes and three distinct patterns were defined in each. No such polymorphism has been found so far among the Old World monkeys in the limited number of animals studied. The major glycophorins in all species but the chimpanzees failed to react with M- or N-specific monoclonal antibodies, suggesting structural differences from the human within the amino terminal regions. The reaction with the minor glycophorins showed inter- and intraspecies variability. All glycophorins, except -like glycophorin in the chimpanzee, reacted with the antiserum to the carboxyl terminal fragment of human glycophorin, indicating a structural relation to the human in this region. An unexpected correlation was observed, in the chimpanzee, between the patterns of electrophoretically resolved glycophorins and the V-A-B-D blood-group phenotypes, allowing the assignment of each determinant to specific glycophorin bands. The basis for the differences observed between human and nonhuman primate glycophorins is not clear but the possibilities include a common nonpolymorphic ancestor and differences in selective pressures.This research was supported by National Institutes of Health Grant 5 RO1 GM16389.     

Blood groups of macaques:a comparative study.

Distribution of the human-type and of the simian-type blood groups in rhesus, crab-eating, bonnet, pig-tailed and stump-tailed macaques revealed significant similarities and differences among these species. Human-type A--B-O blood groups cut across taxonomic lines and seem less value for taxonomic purposes than the simian-type blood groups detected by cross-reacting isoimmune rhesus monkey sera.     

The phylogeny of Old World monkeys

The living Old World monkeys, family Cercopithecidae, are the most successful group of nonhuman primates alive today. Overall, they account for over one quarter of the extant genera of primates and approximately 40% of the species. They have an extensive fossil record extending back to the early and middle Miocene of Africa.^1,2 Despite this specific diversity and a long evolutionary history, it is commonly argued that the group is relatively uniform in both its skeletal³ and dental⁴ anatomy, suggesting that much of the current taxonomic diversity is a relatively recent phenomenon. In such a species group, it is perhaps not surprising that the taxonomy of Old World monkeys is subject to many differing classifications. Thus, in recent years, authors have recognized as few as 10 and as many as 22 different genera within the family. Although some of this greater-than-two-fold difference in the number of genera can be attributed to the “splitting” versus “lumping” philosophies of different researchers, much of it is based on major disagreements over phylogenetic relationships. Recent studies of the genetics and chromosomes of this group have illuminated Old World monkey phylogeny in many ways. Some of these studies have resolved longstanding debates based on morphological data; others have revealed phylogenetic relationships that morphologists had never suspected.     

Species differences in the aromatization of quinic acid in vivo and the role of gut bacteria

1. The fate of (−)-quinic acid has been investigated in 22 species of animals including man. 2. In man and three species of Old World monkeys, i.e. rhesus monkey, baboon and green monkey, oral quinic acid was extensively aromatized (20–60%) and excreted in the urine as hippuric acid, which was determined fluorimetrically. 3. In three species of New World monkeys, i.e. squirrel monkey, spider monkey and capuchin, in three species of lemurs, i.e. bushbaby, slow loris and tree shrew, in the dog, cat, ferret, rabbit, rat, mouse, guinea pig, hamster, lemming, fruit bat, hedgehog and pigeon, oral quinic acid was not extensively aromatized (0–5%). 4. In the rhesus monkey, injected quinic acid was not aromatized, but largely excreted unchanged. 5. In rhesus monkeys pretreated with neomycin to suppress gut flora, the aromatization of oral quinic acid was considerably suppressed. 6. In rats and rhesus monkeys [¹⁴C]quinic acid was used and this confirmed its low aromatization in rats and its high aromatization in the monkeys. 7. Shikimic acid given orally was excreted as hippuric acid (26–56%) in rhesus monkeys, but not in rats. 8. The results support the view that quinic acid and shikimic acid are aromatized by the gut flora in man and the Old World monkeys.     

Conserved linkage groups associated with large-scale chromosomal rearrangements between Old World and New World Leishmania genomes

The genus Leishmania can be taxonomically separated into three main groups: the Old World subgenus L. (Leishmania), the New World subgenus L. (Leishmania) and the New World subgenus L. (Viannia). The haploid genome of Old World Leishmania species has been shown to contain 36 chromosomes defined as physical linkage groups; the latter were found entirely conserved across species. In the present study, we tried to verify whether this conservation of the genome structure extends to the New World species of Leishmania. 300 loci were explored by hybridization on optimized pulsed field gel electrophoresis separations of the chromosomes of polymorphic strains of the six main pathogenic Leishmania species of the New World. When comparing these New World karyotypes with their Old World counterparts, 32 out of 36 linkage groups were found conserved among all species. Four chromosomal rearrangements were found. All species belonging to the L. (Viannia) subgenus were characterized by the presence (i) of a short sequence exchange between chromosomes 26 and 35, and (ii) more importantly, of a fused version of chromosomes 20 and 34 which are separated in all Old World species. 69 additional markers were isolated from a plasmid library specifically constructed from the rearranged chromosomes 20+34 in an attempt to detect mechanisms other than a fusion or breakage: only two markers out of 40 did not belong to the linkage groups 20 and 34. On the other hand, all strains belonging to the New World subgenus L. (Leishmania) were characterized by two different chromosomal rearrangements of the same type (fusion/breakage) as above as compared with Old World species: chromosomes 8+29 and 20+36. Consequently, these two groups of species have 35 and 34 heterologous chromosomes, respectively. Overall, these results show that large-scale chromosomal rearrangements occurred during the evolution of the genus Leishmania, and that the three main groups of pathogenic species are characterized by different chromosome numbers. Nevertheless, translocations seem particularly rare, and the conservation of the major linkage groups should be an essential feature for the compared genetics between species of this parasite.     

Anti-human red cell monoclonal antibodies produced by macaque-mouse heterohybridomas.

Eight monoclonal antibodies (Mabs) against human red cells were produced by macaque-mouse heterohybridomas. All Mabs uniformly reacted with all human red blood cells tested, but only some agglutinated the red cells of anthropoid apes occasionally detecting intraspecies polymorphisms. None was reactive with blood of Old and New World monkeys. One of the Mabs recognized the Vc antigen of the chimpanzee V-A-B-D system, the homologue of the human M-N blood group system.     

Evolution of an intronic microsatellite polymorphism in Toll-like receptor 2 among primates

Nonhuman primates express varying responses to Mycobacterium tuberculosis: New World monkeys appear to be resistant to tuberculosis (TB) while Old World monkeys seem to be particularly susceptible. The aim of this study was to elucidate the presence of the regulatory guanine–thymine (GT) repeat polymorphisms in intron 2 of Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2) associated with the development of TB in humans and to determine any variations in these microsatellite polymorphisms in primates. We sequenced the region encompassing the regulatory GT repeat microsatellites in intron 2 of TLR2 in 12 different nonhuman primates using polymerase chain reaction amplification, TA cloning, and automatic sequencing. The nonhuman primates included for this study were as follows: chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes), bonobo (Pan paniscus), gorilla (Gorilla gorilla), orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus), Celebes ape (Macaca nigra), rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta), pigtail macaque (Macaca nemestrina), patas monkey (Erythrocebus patas), spider monkey (Ateles geoffroyi), Woolly monkey (Lagothrix lagotricha), tamarin (Saguinus labiatus), and ring-tailed lemur (Lemur catta). Nucleotide sequences encompassing the regulatory GT repeat region are similar across species and are completely conserved in great apes. However, Old World monkeys lack GT repeats altogether, while New World monkeys and ring-tailed lemurs have much more complex structures around the position of the repeats. In conclusion, the genetic structures encompassing the regulatory GT repeats in intron 2 of human TLR2 are similar among nonhuman primates. The sequence is most conserved in New World monkeys and less in Old World monkeys.     

Olfactory discrimination of urine odors from five species by tufted capuchin (Cebus apella)

Urine collected from New World monkeys (tufted capuchin, squirrel monkey, cotton-top tamarin) and Old World monkeys (rhesus macaque, Japanese macaque), was used as the odor stimuli. Two adult tufted capuchins were trained on a successive odor-discrimination task with two odors, 30 trials each, in one session per day. Responses to one of the two odors (S+) were reinforced by sweet water. The monkeys failed to discriminate between the urine from the two species of macaques but could discriminate among the urine from the three species of New World monkeys. Furthermore, similarity of urine odors was analyzed by multi-dimensional scaling (MDS) and a cluster analysis. These analysis suggested that the tufted capuchin can distinguish differences among New World monkeys but not between the macaques. The natural distribution of the tufted capuchin overlaps with that of other New World monkeys, but it does not overlap with those of Old World monkeys. Consequently, it can be concluded that this difference in olfactory recognition in the tufted capuchin reflects their sympatric and allopatric relationships with other species.     

Uniformity of colour vision in Old World monkeys

It is often assumed that all Old World monkeys share the same trichromatic colour vision, but the evidence in support of this conclusion is sparse as only a small fraction of all Old World monkey species have been tested. To address this issue, spectral sensitivity functions were measured in animals from eight species of Old World monkey (five cercopithecine species and three colobine species) using a non-invasive electrophysiological technique. Each of the 25 animals examined had spectrally well-separated middle- and long-wavelength cone pigments. Cone pigments maximally sensitive to short wavelengths were also detected, implying the presence of trichromatic colour vision. Direct comparisons of the spectral sensitivity functions of Old World monkeys suggest there are no significant variations in the spectral positions of the cone pigments underlying the trichromatic colour vision of Old World monkeys.     

A molecular phylogeny of the Old World cypresses (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Cupressus</Emphasis>: Cupressaceae): evidence from nuclear and chloroplast DNA sequences

Studies of phylogenetic relationships among cypresses of the Old World (Cupressus; Cupressaceae) have been plagued by unresolved relationships, poor branch support, and conflict between data sets and methods of analysis. In this study, we combined 5.4 kb of aligned DNA sequence and 157 binary characters with previously published data in examining phylogenetic relationships among Cupressus species. Bayesian and parsimony analysis of the combined data or of the nuclear data alone always recovered three principal clades of Cupressus; however, tests of phylogenetic incongruence could not distinguish between competing relationships among the three principal Cupressus lineages. In contrast, incongruence tests often found statistically significant conflict between the nuclear and plastid data, particularly with respect to the placement of C. chengiana. Consistent with previous studies and prevailing taxonomic opinion, we find C. darjeelingensis more closely related to cypresses of the New World (Hesperocyparis). In contrast, we placed accessions of C. assamica and C. tonkinensis, two putatively Old World species suggested to be misidentified New World taxa by some authors, within well-supported Old World clades. Statistical analysis of genetic distances suggests instances in which taxa recognized as distinct species by some authors are identical or nearly so and may best be considered a single taxon. Conversely, we identify instances in which infraspecific taxa are more distantly related to one another than those traditionally recognized as distinct species. Factors confounding cypress taxonomies, including poor morphological differentiation, misidentification, and the use of accessions of questionable provenance, are discussed.     

Blood groups of bonnet macaques (Macaca radiata), with a brief introduction to seroprimatology

The human-type A-B-O blood groups of 52 bonnet macaques (Macaca radiata) were determined. Application of method of population genetics indicated the gene frequences to be O = 0.173, A = 0.480 and B = 0.347. Cross testing of sera and red cells of the bonnet macaques revealed two blood-type-specific isoagglutinins, one of them strong enough for use as a blood typing reagent. No blood group polymorphism was revealed by testing bonnet macaque red cells with isoantisera produced in rhesus monkeys (M. mulatta) and in crab-eating macaques (M. fascicularis). The rhesus and crab-eating macaque isoantisera reacted either with all or with none of the bonnet macaque red cells tested.     

Molecular evolution of the psi eta-globin gene locus: gibbon phylogeny and the hominoid slowdown

An 8.4-kb genomic region spanning both the psi eta-globin gene locus and flanking DNA was sequenced from the common gibbon (Hylobates lar). In addition, sequencing of the entire orthologous region from galago (Galago crassicaudatus) was completed. The gibbon and galago sequences, along with published orthologous sequences from 10 other species, were aligned. These noncoding nucleotide sequences represented four human alleles, four apes (chimpanzee, gorilla, organgutan, and gibbon), an Old World monkey (rhesus monkey), two New World monkeys (spider and owl monkeys), tarsier, two strepsirhines (galago and lemur), and goat. Divergence and maximum parsimony analyses of the psi eta genomic region first groups humans and chimpanzees and then, at progressively more ancient branch points, successively joins gorillas, orangutans, gibbons, Old World monkeys, New World monkeys, tarsiers, and strepsirhines (the lemuriform-lorisiform branch of primates). This cladistic pattern supports the taxonomic grouping of all extant hominoids into family Hominidae, the division of Hominidae into subfamilies Hylobatinae (gibbons) and Homininae, the division of Homininae into tribes Pongini (orangutans) and Hominini, and the division of Hominini into subtribes Gorillina (gorillas) and Hominina (chimpanzees and humans). The additional gibbon and galago sequence data provide further support for the occurrence of a graded evolutionary-rate slowdown in the descent of simian primates, with the slowing rate being more pronounced in the great-ape and human lineages than in the gibbon or monkey lineages. A comparison of global versus local molecular clocks reveals that local clock predictions, when focused on a specific number of species within a narrow time frame, provide a more accurate estimate of divergence dates than do those of global clocks.     

Direct estimate of the spontaneous germ line mutation rate in African green monkeys

Here, I provide the first direct estimate of the spontaneous mutation rate in an Old World monkey, using a seven individual, three‐generation pedigree of African green monkeys. Eight de novo mutations were identified within ～1.5 Gbp of accessible genome, corresponding to an estimated point mutation rate of 0.94 × 10^?8 per site per generation, suggesting an effective population size of ～12000 for the species. This estimation represents a significant improvement in our knowledge of the population genetics of the African green monkey, one of the most important nonhuman primate models in biomedical research. Furthermore, by comparing mutation rates in Old World monkeys with the only other direct estimates in primates to date–humans and chimpanzees–it is possible to uniquely address how mutation rates have evolved over longer time scales. While the estimated spontaneous mutation rate for African green monkeys is slightly lower than the rate of 1.2 × 10^?8 per base pair per generation reported in chimpanzees, it is similar to the lower range of rates of 0.96 × 10^?8–1.28 × 10^?8 per base pair per generation recently estimated from whole genome pedigrees in humans. This result suggests a long‐term constraint on mutation rate that is quite different from similar evidence pertaining to recombination rate evolution in primates.     

Molecular phylogeny of Old World monkeys (Cercopithecidae) as inferred from gamma-globin DNA sequences

DNA sequence data of the nuclear-encoded gamma1-gamma2-globin duplication region were used to examine the phylogenetic relationships of 16 cercopithecid (Old World monkey) species representing 12 extant genera. Morphology- and molecular-based hypotheses of Old World monkey branching patterns are generally congruent, except for generic relationships within the subtribe Papionina. The cercopithecids divide into colobines (leaf-eating monkeys) and cercopithecines (cheek-pouched monkeys). The colobines examined by the DNA data divide into an Asian clade (Nasalis, proboscis monkeys; Trachypithecus, langurs) and an African clade (Colobus, colobus monkeys). The cercopithecines divide into tribes Cercopithecini (Erythrocebus, patas monkey; Chlorocebus, green monkeys; Cercopithecus, guenons) and Papionini. Papionins divide into subtribes Macacina (Macaca, macaques) and Papionina (Papio, hamadryas baboons; Mandrillus, drills and mandrills; Theropithecus, gelada baboons; Lophocebus, arboreal mangabeys; Cercocebus, terrestrial mangabeys). In a morphologically based classification, Mandrillus is a subgenus of Papio, whereas Lophocebus is a subgenus of Cercocebus. In contrast, the molecular evidence treats Mandrillus as a subgenus of Cercocebus, and treats both Theropithecus and Lophocebus as subgenera of Papio. Local molecular clock divergence time estimates were used as a yardstick in a "rank equals age" system to propose a reduction in taxonomic rank for most clades within Cercopithecidae.     

金丝猴(Rhinopithecus)的某些结构特征

本文在对金丝猴的三个种群作系统解剖的基础上,与其他灵长类以及金丝猴的三个种群之间进行了比较。结果表明:在金丝猴与其他灵长类进行比较的44个项目中,金丝猴特有者9项;与叶猴相同而与其他灵长类不同者4项;与疣猴类的共同特征9项;与叶猴、类人猿和人相似而为其他猴类所不具备的特征有5项;与类人猿和人相似而为叶猴和其他猴类所不具备的特征有17项。因此,我们认为金丝猴的地位在叶猴之上,是猴超科(Cercopithecoidea) 中最进化的一个属,在灵长类系统发育中处于猴类与猿类之间的中间地位。在金丝猴三个种群之间互异比较中,相互不同的特征均超过60％,似乎完全有理由把它分立为三个种。