Sources of variation in the incidence of ant–aphid mutualism in boreal forests

• 1 The mutualism between wood ants of the Formica rufa group and aphids living in the canopy of trees is a widespread phenomenon in boreal forests, and it can affect tree growth. However, not all trees in the forest are involved in this interaction.
• 2 To assess the incidence of host trees involved in this ant–aphid mutualism and its spatial distribution in boreal forests, we inventoried sample plots with a radius of 10–15 m around wood ant mounds in 12 forest stands of two age classes (5–12‐year‐old sapling stands and 30–45‐year‐old pole stands) and two dominant tree species (Scots pine and silver birch) in Eastern Finland from 2007 to 2009.
• 3 The proportion of trees visited by ants out of all trees on the individual study plots were in the range 4–62%, and 1.5–39% of the trees on the plots were consistently visited by ants during all 3 years. The percentage of host trees increased with the ant mound base area on the plots. Trees visited by ants were larger and closer to the mound than trees not visited by ants. Within the group of visited trees, more ants were found on bigger trees and on trees close to the ant mounds.
• 4 Extrapolated from plot to stand level, we estimated that 0.5–6.6% of the trees were host trees in at least one of the three study years, and that only 0.01–2.3% of all the trees were consistently visited by ants during all 3 years. It is concluded that ant–aphid mutualism is a minor occurrence at the stand level.

     

Vegetation Structure,Composition, and Species Richness Across a 56‐year Chronosequence of Dry Tropical Forest on Providencia Island,Colombia1

We compared vegetation structure and species richness across a 56‐yr chronosequence of six replicated age classes of dry tropical forest on the island of Providencia, Colombia, in the Southwest Caribbean. Stand age classes were determined using sequential, orthorectified panchromatic aerial photos acquired between 1944 and 1996 and Landsat 7 ETM + satellite imagery from 2000. Along the chronosequence we established 59 plots of 2 × 50 m (0.01 ha) to document changes in species richness, basal area, tree height, stem density, and sprouting ability. All woody trees and shrubs >2.5 cm diameter at breast height (DBH) were censused and measured. Although woody species density reached a peak in stands from 32 to 56 yr old, rarefaction analysis showed that species richness increased linearly with stand age and was highest in stands 56 yr old or greater. Nonparametric, abundance‐based estimators of species richness also showed positive and linear associations with age. Basal area and mean tree height were positively associated with age since abandonment, while sprouting ability showed a negative relationship. Our results indicate rapid recovery of woody species richness and structural characteristics along this tropical dry forest chronosequence.     

海南岛霸王岭热带低地雨林植被恢复动态

热带次生林具有重要的物种保育和固碳功能, 然而高强度的干扰会导致次生林早期出现类似季雨林的阶段, 因而群落恢复速度和方向是当前热带生态学研究中最为关注的议题之一。该文以海南岛在刀耕火种弃耕地形成的不同演替阶段的次生林为研究对象, 比较森林不同恢复时间(12年、25年、55年)群落中的不同年龄(幼树、小树、成年树)个体与低地雨林老龄林的物种组成、多样性和群落结构差异, 探讨刀耕火种弃耕地恢复过程中的群落组配过程。首先, 在海南岛霸王岭林区内建立7个1 hm²(100 m × 100 m)的样地, 并调查样地内所有胸径≥ 1 cm的木本植物个体(不包括木质藤本)的种类、胸径大小和树高。无度量多维标定法(NMS)排序结果表明, 刀耕火种弃耕地恢复群落与老龄林的物种组成存在明显差异, 并且其物种组成差异随着径级增加而逐渐减小。刀耕火种弃耕地群落物种累积速度缓慢, 25年和55年恢复群落的种面积、种个体和种多度曲线无差异, 存在一个明显的停滞阶段。与物种组成相比, 群落结构恢复相对较迅速, 但仍没有形成老龄林阶段中的复杂结构。萌生个体在早期恢复群落中占有较高比例, 其个体密度和胸高断面积分别占总数的39.9%和55.9%, 但在恢复中后期迅速降低。刀耕火种弃耕地恢复群落中以先锋种和非先锋喜光种为主。虽然耐阴种随演替而逐渐增加, 但恢复中后期群落中的耐阴种重要值仅为老龄林的27.7%。这些结果表明, 虽然刀耕火种弃耕地恢复群落缓慢地逐渐接近最终恢复目标, 但仍然存在 很大的不确定性。刀耕火种弃耕地恢复过程中的异速恢复和停滞阶段需要纳入今后群落演替模型构建和森林固碳效益核甘共苦算中。     

Correlation between stand structure and ground vegetation: an analytical approach

The effect of stand structure on the diversity of the forest's ground vegetation was examined based on data on permanent sample plots collected in the northern parts of North-Carelia, eastern Finland. Different ordination methods (DCA, GNMDS, LNMDS, and HMDS) were used together with the TWINSPAN classification method. The aim was to construct a basis for classifying forests with respect to the biodiversity of the forest vegetation. Fertility and stand age showed the strongest correlation with the variation in ground vegetation. Other important factors were basal area, tree species composition, and crown cover. These variables were important in the division of the sample plots into different classes. According to the diversity indices, species diversity was at its highest in young stands on fertile forest sites. As a result, twenty-one different classes were formed based on the relative abundance of understorey species. The variables with the highest correlation were used to describe the stand structure in these classes.     

北京地区侧柏人工林密度效应

密度是影响森林尤其是人工林生长的重要因素,林冠层是森林生态系统与其他系统进行能量和物质交换的重要场所,树木及树冠生长对林分密度的响应关系可以看作是生物对环境变化产生的适应性现象。林分密度效应是生态学和森林培育学的重要研究内容之一。以23块8种不同密度梯度的北京山区侧柏人工幼龄林林分为研究对象分析其树木生长及树冠生长对密度的响应关系,其中树冠指标使用了参照了美国林务局(USDA)的树冠调查指标。研究结果表明:(1)林分平均胸径、平均树高和平均冠幅生长均随密度增大而减小,林分密度大于3000株/hm2时各指标减小的趋势变缓,使用异速生长模型可以很好地拟合这种变化关系;(2)随密度增加,树冠水平方向和垂直方向生长均到显著地抑制作用,树冠外形表现出由饱满冠型向狭长冠型变化的适应性现象;(3)使用树冠二维、三维指标与密度进行相关性分析可知树冠长度、树冠率等指标与林分密度呈负相关关系,树冠圆满度及树冠生产效率与密度表现出极显著正相关关系;(4)采用枝解析的方法研究了树枝长度、材积的平均生长量、连年生长量与密度的关系,结果表明幼龄期各生长量差异不大;(5)在建立冠幅模型时考虑了自变量间的多重共线性问题,所建的胸径单自变量二次方模型能够很好地预测侧柏人工幼龄林冠幅生长过程,模型相关系数R2为0.961。     

坝下地区防护林不同树种生长特征

采用标准样地调查法对防护林林分结构指标进行调查,研究河北坝下地区丰宁县小坝子乡不同防护林树种榆树、杨树及油松的动态变化规律.结果表明: 该区域榆树、杨树和油松纯林的平均年龄均为10年,杨树纯林的平均胸径和树高分别是榆树纯林的2.3和3.8倍,是油松纯林的2.3和3.0倍.杨树纯林的平均胸径、树高、叶面积指数(LAI)、活枝下高等指标显著大于榆树纯林和油松纯林.与杨树混交林相比,杨树纯林的林分密度高10.8%,纯林平均胸径则低5.2%,平均树高低11.3%;与榆树混交林相比,榆树纯林的林分密度高6.6%,纯林平均胸径、树高分别低7.8%和14.2%;与油松混交林相比,油松纯林的林分密度大4.9%,纯林平均胸径和树高分别低29.3%和31.8%.各林分类型的平均胸径、树高与密度呈显著负相关;平均LAI与密度和活枝下高呈显著正相关,与胸径、树高呈显著负相关;平均活枝下高与密度呈显著正相关.针阔混交林的胸径和树高生长显著优于针叶纯林.该区域防护林综合生长潜力呈上升趋势,而横向生长潜力总体上呈下降趋势.     

Stand height and cover type complement forest age structure as a biodiversity indicator in boreal and northern temperate forest management

Forest age structure is one of the main indicators of biodiversity in temperate and boreal forests worldwide. This indicator was mainly chosen for the conservation of a subset of rare or sensitive species related to the oldest age classes, not to capture variability across the entire biodiversity spectrum, but is often considered as such. In this study, we analysed alpha and beta diversity in temporary plots of western Quebec, Canada, to consider biodiversity indicators complementary to existing forest age structure targets. Our analysis revealed that considered individually, stand characteristics such as cover type and height are better predictors of changes in site-level contribution to tree beta diversity than age. We also show that plots belonging to different age classes can be similar in terms of tree alpha diversity. Height class was found to have a more significant impact on tree alpha diversity than expected: height was more important than age in coniferous forests, and in deciduous and mixedwood stands it frequently complemented age in explaining the observed diversity patterns. Our results suggest that forest age structure target levels should not be used as the sole indicator of ecosystem sustainability, and that some mature secondary stands can provide significant contributions to biodiversity. We propose that more efficient trade-offs between forest exploitation, ecosystem functioning and environmental conservation can be attained if: (i) forest age structure targets are complemented by cover type and stand height; or (ii) complementary biodiversity indicators of ecosystem sustainability are implemented.     

黄土高原油松天然纯林结构特征的研究

结构是森林群落的基本特征,决定着群落的功能和发展方向。该研究采用结构参数角尺度(W)、混交度(M)、大小比数(U)以及样地纵剖面图分析了两块长宽均为60 m×60 m的油松天然林的空间结构特征,同时采用胸径(DBH)、树高(TH)和冠幅面积(CA)分布的直方图以及Shannon-Wiener多样性指数分析了它的非空间结构特征。结果表明:油松天然林种间隔离程度很低(=0.019),几乎为油松纯林,个体大小分化均匀(=0.478),整体呈随机分布(=0.485)。小树(TH≤5 m)个体相对较少,而大树(TH10 m)占多数且其树高分布集中。平均树高多样性THD=2.35,胸径集中分布在14~34 cm,58.4%~62.8%的树冠面积分布在20~40 m~2。林下油松幼苗更新丰富,但分布不均。这些特征表明成熟的油松天然林群落结构不稳定,可能趋向衰退并将逐渐被其他阔叶树种代替。     

Structural and functional changes in Nothofagus pumilio forests along an altitudinal gradient in Tierra del Fuego,Argentina

Abstract. Structural (density, height, basal area, above‐ground tree biomass, leaf area index) and functional (leaf phenology, growth rate, fine litter fall, leaf decomposition) traits were quantified in four mature forests of Nothofagus pumilio (lenga) along an altitudinal sequence in Tierra del Fuego, Argentina. Three erect forest stands at 220, 440 and 540m and a krummholz stand at 640 m a.s.l. were selected. Along the altitudinal sequence, stem density increased while DBH, height, biomass, leaf‐size and growth period, mean growth rate and decay rate decreased. Dead stems increased and basal area and fine‐litter fall decreased with an increase in elevation among erect forests, but these trends inverted at krummholz. We suggest that krummholz is not only a morphological response to the adverse climate but is also a life form with functional advantages.     

The vertical leaf distribution of Ulmus laevis Pall.

Vertical leaf distribution and relative irradiance were ascertained for the dominant species Ulmus laevis Pall. at the level of the individual tree and at the level of the stand in a mixed broad-leaved forest in South Moravia, the Czech Republic. The study consisted of detailed, destructive measurement of five selected sample trees and the establishment of basic biometric parameters for the entire stand. Using allometric relationships, measurements from sample trees were generalized to diameter at breast height (DBH) classes and were then scaled up to the level of the imaginary pure stand of elm; the selected independent variables were tree height and DBH. The vertical leaf distribution was unimodal in trees with smaller dimensions and bimodal in trees with larger dimensions. The leaf area index (LAI) of the stand was 4 (6.4 including the undergrowth), and the sunlit leaf area index (SLAI) was 1.7. Dominant trees had a higher proportion of sunlit leaf area than subdominant and suppressed trees. Determination of appropriate methods and intensity of thinning can lead to optimizing of irradiation control, vitality increase of the elm stands and subsequently to a higher resistance to Dutch elm disease vector and disease itself.     

塔里木河下游胡杨空心特征

本文选取塔里木河下游阿拉干断面胡杨林长期监测样地,分析胡杨林空心率、树洞特征及其在不同胸径和树高组间的分布特点。结果表明: 研究区胡杨种群具有较高的空心现象,空心胡杨占调查胡杨总数量的56%,约159株·hm^-2;胡杨空心率在不同胸径和树高组间呈显著差异,其与胸径呈显著正相关,与树高呈显著负相关。该监测样地胡杨树洞密度约560个·hm^-2,平均每株2个;所调查的胡杨树洞大部分出现在树干上(57.1%),均以树干中部洞口为主(31.3%);直径为5~15 cm的树洞(38.2%)所占比例最大。总树洞数量、单株树洞数量、树洞直径等特征与胸径呈显著正相关,与树高呈显著负相关,而各树洞类型在不同胸径和树高组间的分布不同,变化趋势不一致。胡杨树洞在各方位上的分布差异显著,树洞集中分布在正西方向上。胡杨荒漠河岸林的空心发生率较为严重,且胸径越大其空穴化程度越明显。加强保育幼龄胡杨和修复退化荒漠河岸林具有重要意义。     

Long-term changes in bryophyte diversity of central European managed forests depending on site environmental features

Cryptogamic diversity is a reliable indicator of the state of forest ecosystems. In this study we analysed the variations in both bryophyte species richness overall and number of hemerophobic bryophyte species in Central European managed forests over a 20-year time span, based on data collected in 132 plots scattered across Poland. We tested differences in species richness among five temporal replicates, as well as among site types grouped based on elevation a.s.l., dominant tree species and stand age. The analyses revealed no significant trend in species richness across years. Meanwhile, species richness significantly increased along with elevation a.s.l., especially in broadleaved forests. No significant difference in species number between spruce and pine dominated stands emerged for mature stands, while there was a strong difference for young stands, with spruce forest hosting a much higher number of species. Species richness exhibited a slight, but not significant, increase over time in broadleaved forests, no significant variations in pine dominated stands and significant fluctuations in spruce dominated stands, yet without a significant trend. Out of the tested drivers, dominant tree species exhibited the strongest impact on species community composition. Number of hemerophobic and strongly hemerophobic species did not undergo significant variations across years either. The lack of bryophyte diversity trends highlighted in this study suggests Central European managed forests are in an equilibrium sate, maintained by the opposing effects of climate changes, on one side and of more sustainable forest management and pollutant deposition decline, from the other.

     

Forest Structure and Biomass of a Tropical Seasonal Rain Forest in Xishuangbanna,Southwest China1

Xishuangbanna is a region located at the northern edge of tropical Asia. Biomass estimates of its tropical rain forest have not been published in English literature. We estimated forest biomass and its allocation patterns in five 0.185–1.0 ha plots in tropical seasonal rain forests of Xishuangbanna. Forest biomass ranged from 362.1 to 692.6 Mg/ha. Biomass of trees with diameter at 1.3 m breast height (DBH) ≥ 5 cm accounted for 98.2 percent of the rain forest biomass, followed by shrubs (0.9%), woody lianas (0.8%), and herbs (0.2%). Biomass allocation to different tree components was 68.4–70.0 percent to stems, 19.8–21.8 percent to roots, 7.4–10.6 percent to branches, and 0.7–1.3 percent to leaves. Biomass allocation to the tree sublayers was 55.3–62.2 percent to the A layer (upper layer), 30.6–37.1 percent to the B layer (middle), and 2.7–7.6 percent to the C layer (lower). Biomass of Pometia tomentosa, a dominant species, accounted for 19.7–21.1 percent of the total tree biomass. The average density of large trees (DBH ≥100 cm) was 9.4 stems/ha on two small plots and 3.5 stems/ha on two large plots, illustrating the potential to overestimate biomass on a landscape scale if only small plots are sampled. Biomass estimations are similar to typical tropical rain forests in Southeast Asia and the Neotropics.     

Understorey vegetation development in North Finnish Picea forests after disturbance: re‐analysis of Sirén's data

Abstract. Sirén (1955) studied understorey species composition, tree stand properties and humus‐layer thickness in 64 unlogged forest stands on topographically and pedologically comparable sites. The stands were of even age (6 – 300 yr), stocked with the first or second tree generation after wildfire. The view of Sirén and several authors after him, that the vegetation of old‐growth boreal Picea forests is homogeneous on a broad scale, was examined by applying, in parallel, the partial variants of two ordination methods (DCA and PCA) to Sirén's vegetation data. Two main vegetation gradients were found: a major gradient running from recently burnt plots with prominence of pioneer species to plots with stand age > 100 yr, a well stocked tree layer and a thick humus layer, dominance of feather‐mosses and ample occurrence of shade‐tolerant as well as light‐preferring vascular plant species, and a second gradient along which first‐ and second‐generation plots segregate. The more prominent element of Betula trees in first‐ than in second‐generation stands < 100 yr contributed to the latter. A minor third gradient related to humus‐layer thickness was recovered by partial DCA only. The main vegetation gradient reappeared in separate ordinations of data from 47 mature forest stands (> 100 yr), but without being correlated with forest age. Variation among mature‐forest stands in the importance of pioneer species is considered mainly to be brought about by fine‐scale disturbance processes such as tree uprooting. Increasing importance of factors operating on within‐stand scales [development of a varied gap structure and stronger gradients in tree influence (radiation at ground level), soil moisture, soil depth and nutrient availability] with time is also reflected in the second and third mature‐forest ordination axes. Possible implications of the results for conservation of biological diversity and monitoring of changes in boreal forests are discussed.     

Simulation modeling of the effects of site conditions and disturbance history on a boreal forest landscape

Abstract. Computer simulations were used to elaborate hypotheses about controls on forest structure and composition in a 0.7 km ≤ area of boreal forest in Central Sweden. DBH and species of all adult trees and stand conditions were recorded for 57–10 m radius plots. Ordination of these data suggested that nutrient-availability and time-since-disturbance were the main controls of forest composition and structure within the area. The simulation model couples equations representing the effect of tree canopy structure and biomass on light and soil conditions with equations representing the effect of these conditions on reproduction, growth and mortality in height cohorts of trees on a 0.1 ha patch. Nitrogen-availability levels for each modeled plot were simulated by species-specific growth multipliers. The model was run for 400 simulated yr at six levels of N availability. Age and N status of each study plot were inferred by matching with the most similar model output. Inferred ages agreed with what is known of the disturbance history, and site factors related to soil fertility were correctly correlated with the inferred N status. The consequences of size-selective disturbance were explored by model experiments. Biomass was removed from large or small size classes at 100 - 200 yr and the simulations were run for an additional 300 yr. Disturbed stands of high N status often became similar to undisturbed stands of different N status. Size-selective disturbances produced stands that were different from any in the undisturbed succession, but these differences disappeared within 50 - 100 yr, implying successional convergence in stand structure and composition. Plots of simulated basal area against time and nitrogen-availability for the four species illustrate the time dependence of species performance along a fertility gradient.     

Microsite variation and climate result in stand dynamics variation in pristine Pinus sylvestris mires: Evidence from a stand structure study

Questions: How do climate conditions and the site's ecohy‐ drological properties affect the age and size structure of natural Pinus sylvestris stands on pristine boreal mires? How do the long‐term stand dynamics on mires proceed as stands age? Do the mire stands reach a balanced, old‐growth stage? Location: Boreal mire forests in southern and northern Finland. Methods: Tree age and diameter distributions were analysed in 52 stands in two climate areas and in two mire site types with different ecohydrological properties. Temporal stand dynamics were examined by (1) comparing the graphs of the stands’ mean tree ages by diameter at breast height (1.3 m) classes and (2) describing the changes in stand characteristics and stand age and size structures as a function of stand dominant age in a chronosequence. Results: In the south, the DBH distributions were mostly unimodal and bell‐shaped in both site type groups. Age distributions were multimodal and flat in fully‐stocked sites but more uneven in sparsely forested composite sites. In the north, both the age and size distributions were clearly uneven in both site type groups. Tree age and size variation increased with stand age, but levelled out in the long term. Particularly in the south, the abundance of small trees decreased as stand age increased. Conclusions: The pine stands on pristine boreal mires are more dynamic than anticipated and are generally not characterised by a balanced, self‐perpetuating structure. Their dynamics reflect differences in climate and ecohydrology: on stocked sites in favourable boreal conditions, the stands showed structures typically resultant of inter‐tree competition processes that control tree growth and regeneration, whereas in harsh boreal climates, the tree regeneration process is ongoing diversifying the stand structure.     

黄土丘陵区油松水土保持林生长过程与直径结构

应用标准木树干解析法,研究了黄土丘陵沟壑区阴坡和阳坡两种21年生(密度为2 222株·hm^-2)油松林分的生物量、林木生长过程和直径结构.结果表明：两种林分树高、林木直径和材积生长过程明显不同,阴坡林分的生物量、生长状况和直径结构优于阳坡林分.两种林分树高速生期出现在9～13年生之间,13年生以后,阴坡林分的生长量明显高于阳坡林分(21年生时,前者的连年生长量约在0.26 m·a^-1,后者在0.1 m·a^-1左右).两种林分的胸径生长量在13年生以后明显降低,但阴坡林分的降幅明显小于阳坡林分;17年生以后,前者的连年生长量明显大于后者(21年时,前者约在0.46 cm·a^-1,后者只有0.27 cm·a^-1左右).两种林分单株材积生长量在13年生之前差异较小,13年生之后,阴坡林分的连年生长量明显大于阳坡林分(21年生时,前者为0.0023 m³·a^-1,后者只有0.0015 m³·a^-1).两种林分直径分布都呈现顶峰左偏(林分密度偏大)的现象,但阴坡林分的偏度系数(SK为0.75)小于阳坡林分(SK为1.03)、而峰度系数(K为1.05)大于阳坡林分(K为0.94),说明阳坡林分密度偏大的程度大于阴坡林分.     

Multi‐scale patterns of forest structure and species composition in relation to climate in northeast China

Though a number of studies have focused on the factors that shape the structure and dynamics of temperate forests, little is known about whether these factors vary with spatial scale. In this study we investigated compositional and structural patterns of forests across three spatial scales (plot, local assemblages and regions) in northeast China and asked whether climatic variables shape these patterns. Using a systematic sampling design, we measured diameter at breast height (DBH) and height of trees, and recorded the abundances, percent of cover and heights of shrubs and herbs in 141 plots from 10 nature reserves. We found that summer temperature accounted for most of the variation in species composition, both within and among forest types. DBH, tree height and total basal area all increased significantly with summer temperature while stem density decreased. The DBH frequency distribution depended strongly on temperature (especially winter temperature) and varied among spatial scales, and it tended to be more left‐skewed as temperature increased. Taking together, our results suggest that a warming climate could lead to an increase in tree growth and the changes in size structure of temperate forests in northeast China. In particular, the proportion of large trees will in all likelihood increase while that of smaller trees will decrease. Shifts in forest structure in a warmed world will undoubtedly influence forest management practices, ecosystem dynamics, and species conservation.     

Structure of Anogeissus leiocarpa Guill., Perr. natural stands in relation to anthropogenic pressure within Wari‐Maro Forest Reserve in Benin

The present study focused on the analysis of the structure of the Anogeissus leiocarpa dominated natural stands in the Wari‐Maro forest reserve which are under high and minimal anthropogenic pressures. These stands were considered for forest inventories after carrying out a random sampling scheme of 40 sample units of 30 m × 50 m. In each level pressure stand, the dbh and tree‐height of identified tree‐species were measured in each plot. Data analyses were based on the computation of structural parameters, establishment of diameter and height distributions and the floristic composition of the two types of stands. Results obtained showed higher values for the overall basal area (9.78 m² ha^?1), mean height (22.37 m) and mean diameter (36.92 cm) for A. leiocarpa in low‐pressure stands. In high‐pressure stands, some species like Afzelia africana had lower Importance Value Index and the frequency of A. leiocarpa trees in the successive diameter classes dropped rapidly and the value of the logarithmic slope of the height–diameter relationship was lower (9.77) indicating a lanky shape. Results obtained suggest that effective conservation is needed for A. leiocarpa stands under high pressure by limiting human interference and developing appropriate strategy for restoration purposes.