L-trans-PDC enhances hippocampal neuronal activity by stimulating glial glutamate release independently of blocking transporters

The glutamate transporter inhibitor, L-trans-pyrrolidine-2,4-dicarboxylic acid (PDC) reversibly enhanced hippocampal neuronal activity in the rat and mouse dentate gyrus. The PDC action was still found in mice lacking the glial glutamate transporter GLT-1. PDC did not influence the rate of spontaneous miniature excitatory postsynaptic currents and spontaneous inhibitory postsynaptic currents, ionotropic glutamate receptor currents, or GABA-evoked currents in cultured rat hippocampal neurons. PDC increased glutamate released from cultured hippocampal astrocytes from normal rats, normal mice, and GLT-1 knock-out mice, that is not inhibited by deleting extracellular Na(+), while the drug had no effect on the release from cultured rat hippocampal neurons. The results of the present study thus suggest that PDC stimulates glial glutamate release by a mechanism independent of inhibiting glutamate transporters, which perhaps causes an increase in synaptic glutamate concentrations, in part responsible for the enhancement in hippocampal neuronal activity.     

突触前代谢型谷氨酸受体调节神经递质的释放

谷氨酸通过激活离子型受体（iGluR)介导快速兴奋性突触传递,参与脑内几乎所有生理过程。谷氨酸过量释放可导致与脑缺血,缺氧及变性疾病有关的兴奋毒作用,最终引起神经元的死亡。代谢型谷氨酸受体（mGluRs)是一个与G－蛋白偶联的受体家族,分三型共八个亚型。其中Ⅱ和Ⅲ型mGluRs主要位于突触前,发挥对谷氨酸释放的负反馈调节。Ⅲ型mGluRs中的mGluR7位于谷氨酸能末梢突触前膜的活性区,发挥自身受体的作用,对正常情况下突触传递过程的谷氨酸释放进行负反馈调节;而属于Ⅱ型的mGluR2及属于Ⅲ型的mGluR4和mGluR8,则位于远离突有膜活性区的外突触区,因而正常突触传递过程中释放的谷氨酸量不能激活它们。只有在突触传递增强的情况下才被激活,抑制递质的释放。国外,mGluRs还分布在GABA能纤维末梢,通过突触前机制抑制GABA的释放。对突触前膜受体尤其是位于外突触区的mGluRs受体的研究,将有可能开发出理想的工具药,从而预防和阻止谷氨酸过量释放引起的神经毒及神经元的死亡。     

Contribution of NMDA and Non-NMDA Receptors to In vivo Glutamate-Induced Calpain Activation in the Rat Striatum. Relation to Neuronal Damage

Glutamate, the major excitatory neurotransmitter, can cause the death of neurons by a mechanism known as excitotoxicity. This is a calcium-dependent process and activation of the NMDA receptor subtype contributes mainly to neuronal damage, due to its high permeability to calcium. Activation of calpain, a calcium-dependent cysteine protease, has been implicated in necrotic excitotoxic neuronal death. We have investigated the contribution of NMDA and non-NMDA ionotropic receptors to calpain activation and neuronal death induced by the acute administration of glutamate into the rat striatum. Calpain activity was assessed by the cleavage of the cytoskeletal protein, α-spectrin. Caspase-3 activity was also studied because glutamate can also lead to apoptosis. Results show no caspase-3 activity, but a strong calpain activation involving both NMDA and non-NMDA receptors. Although neuronal damage is mediated mainly by the NMDA receptor subtype, it can not be attributed solely to calpain activity. Special issue article in honor of Dr. Ricardo Tapia.     

Atorvastatin prevents cell damage via modulation of oxidative stress,glutamate uptake and glutamine synthetase activity in hippocampal slices subjected to oxygen/glucose deprivation

Oxygen–glucose deprivation (OGD) in brain cells increases extracellular glutamate concentration leading to excitotoxicity. Glutamate uptake from the synaptic cleft is carried out by glutamate transporters, which are likely to be modulated by oxidative stress. Therefore, oxidative stress is associated with reduced activity of glutamate transporters and glutamine synthetase, thus increasing extracellular glutamate levels that may aggravate damage to brain cells. Atorvastatin, a cholesterol-lowering agent, has been shown to exert neuroprotective effects. The aim of this study was to investigate if in vivo atorvastatin treatment would have protective effects against hippocampal slices subjected to OGD, ex vivo. Atorvastatin pretreatment promoted increased cell viability after OGD and reoxygenation of hippocampal slices. Atorvastatin-induced neuroprotection may be related to diminished oxidative stress, since it prevented OGD-induced decrement of non-proteic thiols (NPSH) levels and increase in the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Atorvastatin pretreatment also prevented the OGD-induced decrease in glutamate uptake and glutamine synthetase activity, although it had no effect on OGD-induced excitatory aminoacids release. Addition of cholesterol before OGD and reoxygenation, abolished the protective effect of atorvastatin on cellular viability as well as on glutamate uptake and glutamine synthetase activity. Therefore, atorvastatin is capable of preventing OGD-induced cell death, an effect achieved due to modulation of glutamate uptake and glutamine synthetase activity, and associated with diminished oxidative stress. Additionally, atorvastatin effects were dependent on its action on cholesterol synthesis inhibition. Thus, atorvastatin might be a useful strategy in the prevention of glutamate exitotoxicity involved in brain injuries such as vascular disorders.     

DNQX-induced toxicity in cultured rat hippocampal neurons: an apparent AMPA receptor-independent effect?

To evaluate the involvement of AMPA receptor activation in neuronal cell death and survival, rat hippocampal neurons in culture were treated with AMPA receptor antagonists. A 46 h treatment with 6,7-dinitroquinoxaline-2,3-dione (DNQX), added 2 h after cell plating, induces a dose-dependent neurotoxicity. Similar effects are also observed in more mature hippocampal neurons (treatment at 14 days in vitro). DNQX toxic effect is neuron-specific since cultured hippocampal glial cells are unaffected. Attempts to characterise the site of action of DNQX suggest that ionotropic glutamate receptors would not be implicated. Indeed, (i) other AMPA receptor antagonists are either ineffective or only moderately efficient in mimicking DNQX effects; (ii) AMPA alone or in the presence of cyclothiazide, as well as, other AMPA receptor agonists, do not reverse DNQX action; (iii) DNQX neurotoxicity is not likely to involve blockade of NMDA receptor glycine site, since this effect is neither mimicked by 7-chlorokynurenate nor reversed by D-serine. Thus, DNQX toxicity in cultured hippocampal neurons is apparently mediated through an ionotropic glutamate receptor-independent way.     

Neuronal synchrony mediated by astrocytic glutamate through activation of extrasynaptic NMDA receptors

Fast excitatory neurotransmission is mediated by activation of synaptic ionotropic glutamate receptors. In hippocampal slices, we report that stimulation of Schaffer collaterals evokes in CA1 neurons delayed inward currents with slow kinetics, in addition to fast excitatory postsynaptic currents. Similar slow events also occur spontaneously, can still be observed when neuronal activity and synaptic glutamate release are blocked, and are found to be mediated by glutamate released from astrocytes acting preferentially on extrasynaptic NMDA receptors. The slow currents can be triggered by stimuli that evoke Ca2+ oscillations in astrocytes, including photolysis of caged Ca2+ in single astrocytes. As revealed by paired recording and Ca2+ imaging, a striking feature of this NMDA receptor response is that it occurs synchronously in multiple CA1 neurons. Our results reveal a distinct mechanism for neuronal excitation and synchrony and highlight a functional link between astrocytic glutamate and extrasynaptic NMDA receptors.     

Apoptotic Pathways Mobilized in Microglia and Neurones as a Consequence of Chromogranin A-Induced Microglial Activation

Senile plaques of Alzheimer's brain are characterized by activated microglia and immunoreactivity for the peptide chromogranin A. We have investigated the mechanisms by which chromogranin A activates microglia, producing modulators of neuronal survival. Primary cultures of rat brain-derived microglia display a reactive phenotype within 24 h of exposure to 10 nM chromogranin A, culminating in microglial death via apoptotic mechanisms mediated by interleukin-1beta converting enzyme. The signalling cascade initiated by chromogranin A triggers nitric oxide production followed by enhanced microglial glutamate release, inhibition of which prevents microglial death. The plasma membrane carrier inhibitor aminoadipate and the type II/III metabotropic glutamate receptor antagonist (RS)-alpha-methyl-4-sulphonophenylglycine are equally protective. A significant amount of the released glutamate occurs from bafilomycin-sensitive stores, suggesting a vesicular mode of release. Inhibition of this component of release affords significant microglial protection. Conditioned medium from activated microglia kills cerebellar granule cells by inducing caspase-3-dependent neuronal apoptosis. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor is partially neuroprotective, as are ionotropic glutamate receptor antagonists, and, when combined with boiling of conditioned medium, full protection is achieved; nitric oxide synthase inhibitors are ineffective.     

A Truncated Fragment of Src Protein Kinase Generated by Calpain-mediated Cleavage Is a Mediator of Neuronal Death in Excitotoxicity

Excitotoxicity resulting from overstimulation of glutamate receptors is a major cause of neuronal death in cerebral ischemic stroke. The overstimulated ionotropic glutamate receptors exert their neurotoxic effects in part by overactivation of calpains, which induce neuronal death by catalyzing limited proteolysis of specific cellular proteins. Here, we report that in cultured cortical neurons and in vivo in a rat model of focal ischemic stroke, the tyrosine kinase Src is cleaved by calpains at a site in the N-terminal unique domain. This generates a truncated Src fragment of ∼52 kDa, which we localized predominantly to the cytosol. A cell membrane-permeable fusion peptide derived from the unique domain of Src prevents calpain from cleaving Src in neurons and protects against excitotoxic neuronal death. To explore the role of the truncated Src fragment in neuronal death, we expressed a recombinant truncated Src fragment in cultured neurons and examined how it affects neuronal survival. Expression of this fragment, which lacks the myristoylation motif and unique domain, was sufficient to induce neuronal death. Furthermore, inactivation of the prosurvival kinase Akt is a key step in its neurotoxic signaling pathway. Because Src maintains neuronal survival, our results implicate calpain cleavage as a molecular switch converting Src from a promoter of cell survival to a mediator of neuronal death in excitotoxicity. Besides unveiling a new pathological action of Src, our discovery of the neurotoxic action of the truncated Src fragment suggests new therapeutic strategies with the potential to minimize brain damage in ischemic stroke.     

Terfenadine induces toxicity in cultured cerebellar neurons: A role for glutamate receptors

Summary Exposure of cultured cerebellar neurons to the histamine H1 receptor antagonist terfenadine resulted in neuronal degeneration and death. Terfenadine neurotoxicity was dependent upon concentration and time of exposure. After 2h exposure, 20µM terfenadine reduced the number of surviving neurons by 75%, and as low as 10nM terfenadine induced significant neurotoxicity after 5 days of exposure. Neuronal sensitivity to terfenadine changed with age in culture, and at 25 days in culture neurons appeared to be much less sensitive than at 5 or 9–17 days in culture. Neurotoxicity by terfenadine could not be prevented by high concentrations of histamine (5 mM), but it was significantly delayed by blocking NMDA or non-NMDA glutamate receptors with MK-801 or CNQX respectively, suggesting the involvement of excitatory transmission mediated by glutamate in the neurotoxicity induced by terfenadine in these neurons. We also found that the presence of terfenadine (5,µM) unveiled the potential excitotoxicity of the non-NMDA receptor agonist AMPA (100µM), and reduced the concentration of glutamate necessary to induce excitotoxicity, compared to untreated cultures. These results suggest a role for terfenadine in the modulation of the excitotoxic response mediated in cerebellar neurons through ionotropic glutamate receptors.     

Posttranslational regulation of AMPA receptor trafficking and function

In the mammalian central nervous system, the majority of fast excitatory synaptic transmission is mediated by glutamate acting on AMPA-type ionotropic glutamate receptors. The abundance of AMPA receptors at the synapse can be modulated through receptor trafficking, which dynamically regulates many fundamental brain functions, including learning and memory. Reversible posttranslational modifications, including phosphorylation, palmitoylation and ubiquitination of AMPA receptor subunits are important regulatory mechanisms for controlling synaptic AMPA receptor expression and function. In this review, we highlight recent advances in the study of AMPA receptor posttranslational modifications and discuss how these modifications regulate AMPA receptor trafficking and function at synapses.     

Ionotropic glutamate receptors

In the brain, most fast excitatory synaptic transmission is mediated through L-glutamate acting on postsynaptic ionotropic glutamate receptors. These receptors are of two kinds—the α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionate (AMPA)/kainate (non-NMDA) and theN-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors, which are thought to be colocalized onto the same postsynaptic elements. This excitatory transmission can be modulated both upward and downward, long-term potentiation (LTP) and long-term depression (LTD), respectively. Whether the expression of LTP/LTD is pre-or postsynaptically located (or both) remains an enigma. This article will focus on what postsynaptic modifications of the ionotropic glutamate receptors may possibly underly long-term potentiation/depression. It will discuss the character of LTP/LTD with respect to the temporal characteristics and to the type of changes that appears in the non-NMDA and NMDA receptor-mediated synaptic currents, and what constraints these findings put on the possible expression mechanism(s) for LTP/LTD. It will be submitted that if a modification of the glutamate receptors does underly LTP/LTD, an increase/decrease in the number of functional receptors is the most plausible alternative. This change in receptor number will have to include a coordinated change of both the non-NMDA and the NMDA receptors.     

Attenuation of Excitatory Amino Acid Toxicity by Metabotropic Glutamate Receptor Agonists and Aniracetam in Primary Cultures of Cerebellar Granule Cells

Abstract: Activation of glutamate ionotropic receptors represents the primary event in the neurotoxicity process triggered by excitatory amino acids. We demonstrate here that the concentration-dependent stimulation of metabotropic glutamate receptor (mGluR) by the selective agonist trans-1-aminocyclopentane-1, 3-dicarboxylate or by quisqualate counteracts both glutamate- and kainate-induced neurotoxicity in primary cultures of rat cerebellar granule cells. The mGluR-evoked responses are potentiated by aniracetam, which per se also elicits neuroprotection. Aniracetam concentration-dependently counteracted glutsmate-, kainate-, or α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid-induced cell death and greatly facilitated neuroprotective response achieved by different concentrations of both quisqualate and trans-1-aminocyclopentane-1, 3-dicarboxylate. In addition, aniracetam potentiated the mGluR-coupled stimulation of phospholipase C, as revealed by the measurement of ³H-inositol phosphate formation. Thus, mGluRs could be a suitable target for novel pharmacological strategies pointing to the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases.     

Excitotoxic cell death.

Excitotoxicity refers to the ability of glutamate or related excitatory amino acids to mediate the death of central neurons under certain conditions, for example, after intense exposure. Such excitotoxic neuronal death may contribute to the pathogenesis of brain or spinal cord injury associated with several human disease states. Excitotoxicity has substantial cellular specificity and, in most cases, is mediated by glutamate receptors. On average, NMDA receptors activation may be able to trigger lethal injury more rapidly than AMPA or kainate receptor activation, perhaps reflecting a greater ability to induce calcium influx and subsequent cellular calcium overload. It is possible that excitotoxic death may share some mechanisms with other forms of neuronal death.     

In Vitro and In Vivo Pharmacology of trans- and cis-(±)-1-Amino-1,3-Cyclopentanedicarboxylic Acid: Dissociation of Metabotropic and Ionotropic Excitatory Amino Acid Receptor Effects

This study explored further the function of the metabotropic excitatory amino acid receptor in the rat brain. The trans and cis isomers of (+-)-1-amino-1,3-cyclopentane-dicarboxylic acid (ACPD) were characterized for relative affinities at ionotropic and metabotropic excitatory amino acid receptors in vitro, as well as ability to produce in vivo excitatory or excitotoxic effects in rats. trans-ACPD was about 12 times more potent in vitro as an agonist for metabotropic excitatory amino acid receptors when compared to its ability to displace N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) ([3H]CGS-19755) receptor binding, cis-ACPD was about 30 times more potent as a displacer of [3H]CGS-19755 binding than as a stimulant of phosphoinositide hydrolysis. When administered intraperitoneally to neonatal rats, both cis- and trans-ACPD produced convulsions that were prevented by the competitive NMDA receptor antagonists, LY233053 and LY274614. cis-ACPD was six times more potent as a convulsant when compared to trans-ACPD. Both compounds were examined for excitotoxic effects in vivo following stereotaxic injection into the mature or neonatal rat striatum. Doses of trans-ACPD of up to 5,000 or 1,200 nmol produced few signs of striatal neuronal degeneration in the mature or neonatal brain, respectively. However, cis-ACPD produced extensive dose-related neuronal degeneration at doses of 100-1,000 nmol in the mature brain and 50-200 nmol in the neonatal brain. These studies suggest that, unlike the ionotropic excitatory amino acid receptors, activation of the metabotropic excitatory amino acid receptor does not result directly in excitatory effects, such as excitotoxicity.     

Selective Loss of N-Methyl-d-Aspartate-Sensitive l-[3H]Glutamate Binding Sites in Rat Brain Following Portacaval Anastomosis

Excitatory amino acids have been implicated in the pathogenesis of hepatic encephalopathy. In the present study, kainate, quisqualate and N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) subclasses of L-glutamate receptors were measured in adult rat brain by quantitative receptor autoradiography following surgical construction of an end-to-side portacaval anastomosis (PCA). PCA resulted in sustained hyperammonemia and decreased binding of L-glutamate to the NMDA receptor when compared to sham-operated controls. Decreases in binding ranged from 17 to 39% in several regions of cerebral cortex, hippocampus, striatum, and thalamus. Binding to quisqualate and kainate receptor subtypes was not altered. PCA leads to astrocytic changes in brain but does not result in any measurable loss of neuronal integrity. It is therefore proposed that decreased glutamate binding to the NMDA receptor following PCA results from increased extracellular glutamate caused by decreased reuptake into perineuronal astrocytes and a compensatory down-regulation of these receptors. Such changes could be of pathophysiological significance in hepatic encephalopathy.     

Metabotropic Glutamate Receptors in Glial Cells

Glutamate is the major excitatory neurotransmitter in the mammalian central nervous system (CNS) and exerts its actions via a number of ionotropic glutamate receptors/channels and metabotropic glutamate (mGlu) receptors. In addition to being expressed in neurons, glutamate receptors are expressed in different types of glial cells including astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, and microglia. Astrocytes are now recognized as dynamic signaling elements actively integrating neuronal inputs. Synaptic activity can evoke calcium signals in astrocytes, resulting in the release of gliotransmitters, such as glutamate, ATP, and d-serine, which in turn modulate neuronal excitability and synaptic transmission. In addition, astrocytes, and microglia may play an important role in pathology such as brain trauma and neurodegeneration, limiting or amplifying the pathologic process leading to neuronal death. The present review will focus on recent advances on the role of mGlu receptors expressed in glial cells under physiologic and pathologic conditions. Special issue article in honor of Dr. Anna Maria Giuffrida-Stella.     

Excitotoxic cell death

Excitotoxicity refers to the ability of glutamate or related excitatory amino acids to mediate the death of central neurons under certain conditions, for example, after intense exposure. Such excitotoxic neuronal death may contribute to the pathogenesis of brain or spinal cord injury associated with several human disease states. Excitotoxicity has substantial cellular specificity and, in most cases, is mediated by glutamate receptors. On average, NMDA receptors activation may be able to trigger lethal injury more rapidly than AMPA or kainate receptor activation, perhaps reflecting a greater ability to induce calcium influx and subsequent cellular calcium overload. It is possible that excitotoxic death may share some mechanisms with other forms of neuronal death. © 1992 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Enhancement of Extracellular Glutamate Scavenge System in Injured Motoneurons

Abstract: An increase in glutamine synthetase (GS) mRNA expression after peripheral motor nerve injury was demonstrated by differential display PCR using single arbitrary primer coupled with in situ hybridization screening called in situ display. Differential display PCR was carried out to compare differences in mRNA expression between axotomized (6 h after the transection) and normal hypoglossal nuclei in mice. Several gene fragments were increased after nerve injury; one was identified as GS. Subsequent emulsion autoradiography of hybridization tissue sections revealed that the increase in GS mRNA was observed in injured motoneurons. As GS is a key enzyme participating in the metabolism of the major excitatory neurotransmitter glutamate, we examined the significance of increased GS expression on glutamate-uptake kinetics. GS-transfected human embryonic kidney cells showed an up-regulation in glutamate-uptake kinetics. Therefore, newly expressed GS together with an increased expression of the neuronal glutamate transporter EAAC1 in the injured motoneurons accelerates glutamate uptake. The present results may suggest that the glutamate-uptake system involving the neuronal glutamate transporter and GS in injured neurons is enhanced so as to provide resistance against neurotoxic glutamate accumulation during the early process of nerve regeneration.     

Synaptic Neurotransmitter-Gated Receptors

Since the discovery of the major excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters and their receptors in the brain, many have deliberated over their likely structures and how these may relate to function. This was initially satisfied by the determination of the first amino acid sequences of the Cys-loop receptors that recognized acetylcholine, serotonin, GABA, and glycine, followed later by similar determinations for the glutamate receptors, comprising non-NMDA and NMDA subtypes. The last decade has seen a rapid advance resulting in the first structures of Cys-loop receptors, related bacterial and molluscan homologs, and glutamate receptors, determined down to atomic resolution. This now provides a basis for determining not just the complete structures of these important receptor classes, but also for understanding how various domains and residues interact during agonist binding, receptor activation, and channel opening, including allosteric modulation. This article reviews our current understanding of these mechanisms for the Cys-loop and glutamate receptor families.To understand how neurons communicate with each other requires a fundamental understanding of neurotransmitter receptor structure and function. Neurotransmitter-gated ion channels, also known as ionotropic receptors, are responsible for fast synaptic transmission. They decode chemical signals into electrical responses, thereby transmitting information from one neuron to another. Their suitability for this important task relies on their ability to respond very rapidly to the transient release of neurotransmitter to affect cell excitability.In the central nervous system (CNS), fast synaptic transmission results in two main effects: neuronal excitation and inhibition. For excitation, the principal neurotransmitter involved is glutamate, which interacts with ionotropic (integral ion channel) and metabotropic (second-messenger signaling) receptors. The ionotropic glutamate receptors are permeable to cations, which directly cause excitation. Acetylcholine and serotonin can also activate specific cation-selective ionotropic receptors to affect neuronal excitation. For controlling cell excitability, inhibition is important, and this is mediated by the neurotransmitters GABA and glycine, causing an increased flux of anions. GABA predominates as the major inhibitory transmitter throughout the CNS, whereas glycine is of greater importance in the spinal cord and brainstem. They both activate specific receptors—for GABA, there are ionotropic and metabotropic receptors, whereas for glycine, only ionotropic receptors are known to date.Together with acetylcholine- and serotonin-gated channels, GABA and glycine ionotropic receptors form the superfamily of Cys-loop receptors, which differs in many aspects from the superfamily of ionotropic glutamate receptors. Over the last two decades, our knowledge of the structure and function of ionotropic receptors has grown rapidly. In this article, we summarize our current understanding of the molecular operation of these receptors and how we can now begin to interpret the role of receptor structure in agonist binding, channel activation, and allosteric modulation of Cys-loop and glutamate receptor families. Further details on the regulation and trafficking of neurotransmitter receptors in synaptic structure and plasticity can be found in accompanying articles.