Preservation of behavior after fifteen years of isolation: comparisons of wild and captive endangered pupfish in their natural habitat

Endangered species are often maintained in captivity to serve as a safeguard in the event of an extirpation of natural populations. However, wild and captive populations can rapidly diverge in genetic and phenotypic characteristics, including behavior, when maintained in isolation and under different environmental conditions. Here, we compare two populations of the endangered Leon Springs pupfish (Cyprinodon bovinus): a captive population maintained at the Southwestern Native Aquatic Resources and Recovery Center (SNARRC) and the only remaining wild population. Wild fish in the natural Texan Diamond Y desert spring are remnants of a past reintroduction of captive SNARRC fish, which occurred in 1998. The fifteen years of isolation have led to genetic and morphologic differences between the two populations. To assess the behavioral implications of such divergence, we released previously captive C. bovinus into natural habitat and quantified behaviors under natural conditions and in semi-controlled mesocosms and then replicated these conditions with the established natural population. Both populations exhibited similar levels of reproduction, foraging, and agonistic behavior. Despite divergence in genetic and morphometric characteristics, overall behavioral patterns of C. bovinus remained consistent in similar environments. This stability suggests that captive C. bovinus could again be successful establishing in their natural habitat. It is our hope that this investigation will help focus future conservation efforts towards monitoring the persistence of reintroduced C. bovinus in addition to providing a framework for other recovery plans reintroducing captive stock into ancestral habitats.     

How many came home? Evaluating ex situ conservation of green turtles in the Cayman Islands

Ex situ management is an important conservation tool that allows the preservation of biological diversity outside natural habitats while supporting survival in the wild. Captive breeding followed by re‐introduction is a possible approach for endangered species conservation and preservation of genetic variability. The Cayman Turtle Centre Ltd was established in 1968 to market green turtle (Chelonia mydas) meat and other products and replenish wild populations, thought to be locally extirpated, through captive breeding. We evaluated the effects of this re‐introduction programmme using molecular markers (13 microsatellites, 800‐bp D‐loop and simple tandem repeat mitochondrial DNA sequences) from captive breeders (N = 257) and wild nesting females (N = 57) (sampling period: 2013–2015). We divided the captive breeders into three groups: founders (from the original stock), and then two subdivisions of F₁ individuals corresponding to two different management strategies, cohort 1995 (“C1995”) and multicohort F₁ (“MCF1”). Loss of genetic variability and increased relatedness was observed in the captive stock over time. We found no significant differences in diversity among captive and wild groups, and similar or higher levels of haplotype variability when compared to other natural populations. Using parentage and sibship assignment, we determined that 90% of the wild individuals were related to the captive stock. Our results suggest a strong impact of the re‐introduction programmme on the present recovery of the wild green turtle population nesting in the Cayman Islands. Moreover, genetic relatedness analyses of captive populations are necessary to improve future management actions to maintain genetic diversity in the long term and avoid inbreeding depression.     

Genetic structure of the critically endangered Red‐headed Wood Pigeon Columba janthina nitens and its implications for the management of threatened island populations

The Red‐headed Wood Pigeon Columba janthina nitens is endemic to the Ogasawara Islands, an oceanic island chain located 1000 km south of the main islands of Japan. The subspecies is at high risk of extinction because of its small population size and restricted habitat range. We undertook genetic analyses of this pigeon using sequences of a portion of the mitochondrial control region and five microsatellite markers to estimate the genetic characteristics of two wild populations from the Bonin and Volcano Islands, as well as one captive breeding population. The genetic diversity of the wild individuals was exceptionally low in both the mitochondria (nucleotide diversity = 0.00105) and at the microsatellite (3.2 alleles per locus and H_E = 0.12) loci. Higher numbers of microsatellite genotypes were observed in the Volcano Islands population than in the Bonin Islands population, which may be because of the relatively low impact of human disturbance. The most common mitochondrial haplotypes and microsatellite alleles observed in the two wild populations were completely fixed in the captive population. Our results suggest that the genetic diversity of the captive population needs to be increased. However, introduction of a wild individual into a captive population can lead to a decreased genetic diversity in the wild population and therefore should be done with caution. The genetic differentiation between the Bonin and the Volcano island groups was low, and the populations of the two island groups should be regarded as a single evolutionarily significant unit. However, special consideration is required for habitat conservation in the Volcano Islands, which may be functioning as a sanctuary for the Red‐headed Wood Pigeon. For the long‐term conservation of threatened bird species that live on remote oceanic islands, determination of management units considering gene flow caused by their flying capacity and maintenance of genetically suitable wild and captive populations are essential.     

Genetic wealth,population health: Major histocompatibility complex variation in captive and wild ring‐tailed lemurs (Lemur catta)

Across species, diversity at the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) is critical to individual disease resistance and, hence, to population health; however, MHC diversity can be reduced in small, fragmented, or isolated populations. Given the need for comparative studies of functional genetic diversity, we investigated whether MHC diversity differs between populations which are open, that is experiencing gene flow, versus populations which are closed, that is isolated from other populations. Using the endangered ring‐tailed lemur (Lemur catta) as a model, we compared two populations under long‐term study: a relatively “open,” wild population (n = 180) derived from Bezà Mahafaly Special Reserve, Madagascar (2003–2013) and a “closed,” captive population (n = 121) derived from the Duke Lemur Center (DLC, 1980–2013) and from the Indianapolis and Cincinnati Zoos (2012). For all animals, we assessed MHC‐DRB diversity and, across populations, we compared the number of unique MHC‐DRB alleles and their distributions. Wild individuals possessed more MHC‐DRB alleles than did captive individuals, and overall, the wild population had more unique MHC‐DRB alleles that were more evenly distributed than did the captive population. Despite management efforts to maintain or increase genetic diversity in the DLC population, MHC diversity remained static from 1980 to 2010. Since 2010, however, captive‐breeding efforts resulted in the MHC diversity of offspring increasing to a level commensurate with that found in wild individuals. Therefore, loss of genetic diversity in lemurs, owing to small founder populations or reduced gene flow, can be mitigated by managed breeding efforts. Quantifying MHC diversity within individuals and between populations is the necessary first step to identifying potential improvements to captive management and conservation plans.     

Genetic diversity of North American captive‐born gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla)

Western lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) are designated as critically endangered and wild populations are dramatically declining as a result of habitat destruction, fragmentation, diseases (e.g., Ebola) and the illegal bushmeat trade. As wild populations continue to decline, the genetic management of the North American captive western lowland gorilla population will be an important component of the long‐term conservation of the species. We genotyped 26 individuals from the North American captive gorilla collection at 11 autosomal microsatellite loci in order to compare levels of genetic diversity to wild populations, investigate genetic signatures of a population bottleneck and identify the genetic structure of the captive‐born population. Captive gorillas had significantly higher levels of allelic diversity (t₇ = 4.49, P = 0.002) and heterozygosity (t₇ = 4.15, P = 0.004) than comparative wild populations, yet the population has lost significant allelic diversity while in captivity when compared to founders (t₇ = 2.44, P = 0.04). Analyses suggested no genetic evidence for a population bottleneck of the captive population. Genetic structure results supported the management of North American captive gorillas as a single population. Our results highlight the utility of genetic management approaches for endangered nonhuman primate species.     

Genetic variability and population differentiation in captive baird's Tapirs (Tapirus bairdii)

The objectives of this study were to assess the level of genetic variability and population differentiation within captive populations of an endangered large mammal, Baird's tapir (Tapirus bairdii). We genotyped 37 captive animals from North American (NA) and Central American (CA) zoos and conservation ranches using six polymorphic microsatellite loci. Standard indices of genetic variability (allelic richness and diversity, and heterozygosity) were estimated and compared between captive populations, and between captive and wild population samples. In addition, we evaluated levels of population differentiation using Weir and Cockerham's version of Wright's F-statistics. The results indicate that the NA and CA captive populations of Baird's tapirs have retained levels of genetic variability similar to that measured in a wild population. However, inbreeding coefficients estimated from the molecular data indicate that the CA captive population is at increased risk of losing genetic variability due to inbreeding. Despite this, estimated levels of population differentiation indicate limited divergence of the CA captive population from the wild population. Careful management appears to have kept inbreeding coefficients low in the NA captive population; however, population differentiation levels indicate that the NA population has experienced increased divergence from wild populations due to a founder effect and isolation. Based on these results, we conclude that intermittent exchanges of Baird's tapirs between the NA and CA captive populations will benefit both populations by increasing genetic variability and effective population size, while reducing inbreeding and divergence from wild populations. Zoo Biol 23:521–531, 2004. © 2004 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Genetic monitoring of the Amazonian fish matrinchã (Brycon cephalus) using RAPD markers: insights into supportive breeding and conservation programmes

The importance of genetic evaluations in aquaculture programmes has been increased significantly not only to improve effectiveness of hatchery production but also to maintain genetic diversity. In the present study, wild and captive populations of a commercially important neotropical freshwater fish, Brycon cephalus (Amazonian matrinchã), were analyzed in order to evaluate the levels of genetic diversity in a breeding programme at a Brazilian research institute of tropical fish. Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA fingerprinting was used to access the genetic variability of a wild stock from the Amazon River and of three captive stocks that correspond to consecutive generations from the fishery culture. Although farmed stocks showed considerably lower genetic variation than the wild population, a significantly higher level of polymorphism was detected in the third hatchery generation. The results seem to reflect a common breeding practice on several hatchery fish programmes that use a small number of parents as broodstocks, obtaining reproductive success with few non‐identified mating couples. The obtained data were useful for discussing suitable strategies for the genetic management and biodiversity conservation of this species.     

Genetic assessment,illegal trafficking and management of the Mediterranean spur-thighed tortoise in Southern Spain and Northern Africa

Wild populations of many species are declining as a result of habitat destruction and climate change but also through the over-collection for wild meat and the pet trade. With a long history of trade around the Mediterranean, populations of the spur-thighed tortoise (Testudo graeca graeca) have become highly disturbed. In this study we utilise a molecular approach to investigate the diversity, population admixture and structure of T. g. graeca populations in northern Africa and southern Spain, as well as to obtain an insight into the origin of newly established populations in the south of Europe. We infer this from the sequencing of two partial regions of the mitochondria (12s rRNA + cyt b) and genotyping at 16 microsatellite markers in 448 tortoises. Our results are consistent with the hypothesis that Spanish populations were founded from North Africa, the consequence of multiple introductions or exchanges in genetic material as a result of trans-oceanic dispersal. Despite the trade of individuals between both sides of the Gibraltar Strait, our analysis of population structure showed clear differences between both the African and European populations, suggesting an incipient evolutionary lineage in southeast of Spain. As such, these populations possess unique genetic identities and should be treated as different management units. Surprisingly, the genetic data identified a great deal of diversity contained within pet (captive) stock and also allowed us to infer hybrids among individuals with another species of terrestrial tortoise from northern Spain (T. hermanni hermanni). Additionally, our results provide insight into the local movement and trade of individuals that has occurred around the Mediterranean basin (between northern Africa and southern Spain) and as such provides guidance for the effective management of T. g. graeca captive stock and the illegal trafficking.     

Loss of genetic diversity in farmed populations of Colossoma macropomum estimated by microsatellites

The genetic variability of four Colossoma macropomum broodstocks, three from fish farms in different regions and one from the natural environment in Brazil, was analyzed using microsatellite markers. The wild progeny (n = 30) were caught in the Solimões–Amazonas River, at the varzea lakes; this location is used to mature the fish from larvae to juveniles. The three fish farms were selected according to the age of their lineages and broodstock availability: DNOCS (n = 21) is located in the Ceará State, representing the oldest lineage of cultivated tambaqui in Brazil; Balbina (n = 30) is located in the Amazonas State, representing the youngest stocks of tambaqui farmed in Brazil (approximately 15 years); and UFRPE (n = 30) is located in the Pernambuco State and is considered to be a mixed stock formed from the DNOCS and Balbina lineages. The analysis of 13 microsatellite loci indicated the occurrence of a variability reduction in the farmed populations; the UFRPE stock was the population with the highest diversity level. Low values of molecular coancestry were found in these populations. Additionally, significant differences in the R_ST values among the populations were detected, as was the occurrence of genetic structure. The genetic loss found in these populations may have been influenced by the founder effect. Because no breeding programs were during the entire production period and no pedigree records were kept for these broodstocks, we suggest that a wild population might be used as an important genetic resource to increase the genetic diversity of renewal stock lineages.     

netview p: a network visualization tool to unravel complex population structure using genome‐wide SNPs

Network‐based approaches are emerging as valuable tools for the analysis of complex genetic structure in wild and captive populations. netview p combines data quality control with the construction of population networks through mutual k‐nearest neighbours thresholds applied to genome‐wide SNPs. The program is cross‐platform compatible, open‐source and efficiently operates on data ranging from hundreds to hundreds of thousands of SNPs. The pipeline was used for the analysis of pedigree data from simulated (n = 750, SNPs = 1279) and captive silver‐lipped pearl oysters (n = 415, SNPs = 1107), wild populations of the European hake from the Atlantic and Mediterranean (n = 834, SNPs = 380) and grey wolves from North America (n = 239, SNPs = 78 255). The population networks effectively visualize large‐ and fine‐scale genetic structure within and between populations, including family‐level structure and relationships. netview p comprises a network‐based addition to other population analysis tools and provides user‐friendly access to a complex network analysis pipeline through implementation in python .     

Comparative Genetic Diversity of Wild and Captive Populations of the Bare-Faced Curassow (Crax fasciolata) Based on Cross-Species Microsatellite Markers: Implications for Conservation and Management

The bare-faced curassow (Crax fasciolata) is a large Neotropical bird that suffers anthropogenic pressure across much of its range. A captive population is maintained for conservation management, although there has been no genetic screening of stocks. Based on the six microsatellite markers developed for Crax globulosa, the genetic variability of C. fasciolata and possible differences between a wild and a captive population were investigated. Only three loci were polymorphic, with a total of 27 alleles. More than half of these alleles were private to the wild (n = 8) or captive (n = 7) populations. Significant deviations from Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium were restricted to the captive population. Despite the number of private alleles, genetic drift has probably promoted differentiation between populations. Our results indicate that wild C. fasciolata populations are genetically impoverished and structured, but species-specific microsatellite markers will be necessary for a more reliable assessment of the species’ genetic diversity.     

Genetic admixture between captive-bred and wild individuals affects patterns of dispersal in a brown trout (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Salmo trutta</Emphasis>) population

Genetic admixture between captive-bred and wild individuals has been demonstrated to affect many individual traits, although little is known about its potential influence on dispersal, an important trait governing the eco-evolutionary dynamics of populations. Here, we quantified and described the spatial distribution of genetic admixture in a brown trout (Salmo trutta) population from a small watershed that was stocked until 1999, and then tested whether or not individual dispersal parameters were related to admixture between wild and captive-bred fish. We genotyped 715 fish at 17 microsatellite loci sampled from both the mainstream and all populated tributaries, as well as 48 fish from the hatchery used to stock the study area. First, we used Bayesian clustering to infer local genetic structure and to quantify genetic admixture. We inferred first generation migrants to identify dispersal events and test which features (genetic admixture, sex and body length) affected dispersal parameters (i.e. probability to disperse, distance of dispersal and direction of the dispersal event). We identified two genetic clusters in the river basin, corresponding to wild fish on the one hand and to fish derived from the captive strain on the other hand, allowing us to define an individual gradient of admixture. Individuals with a strong assignment to the captive strain occurred almost exclusively in some tributaries, and were more likely to disperse towards a tributary than towards a site of the mainstream. Furthermore, dispersal probability increased as the probability of assignment to the captive strain increased, and individuals with an intermediate level of admixture exhibited the lowest dispersal distances. These findings show that various dispersal parameters may be biased by admixture with captive-bred genotypes, and that management policies should take into account the differential spread of captive-bred individuals in wild populations.     

Supportive breeding boosts natural population abundance with minimal negative impacts on fitness of a wild population of Chinook salmon

While supportive breeding programmes strive to minimize negative genetic impacts to populations, case studies have found evidence for reduced fitness of artificially produced individuals when they reproduce in the wild. Pedigrees of two complete generations were tracked with molecular markers to investigate differences in reproductive success (RS) of wild and hatchery‐reared Chinook salmon spawning in the natural environment to address questions regarding the demographic and genetic impacts of supplementation to a natural population. Results show a demographic boost to the population from supplementation. On average, fish taken into the hatchery produced 4.7 times more adult offspring, and 1.3 times more adult grand‐offspring than naturally reproducing fish. Of the wild and hatchery fish that successfully reproduced, we found no significant differences in RS between any comparisons, but hatchery‐reared males typically had lower RS values than wild males. Mean relative reproductive success (RRS) for hatchery F₁ females and males was 1.11 (P = 0.84) and 0.89 (P = 0.56), respectively. RRS of hatchery‐reared fish (H) that mated in the wild with either hatchery or wild‐origin (W) fish was generally equivalent to W × W matings. Mean RRS of H × W and H × H matings was 1.07 (P = 0.92) and 0.94 (P = 0.95), respectively. We conclude that fish chosen for hatchery rearing did not have a detectable negative impact on the fitness of wild fish by mating with them for a single generation. Results suggest that supplementation following similar management practices (e.g. 100% local, wild‐origin brood stock) can successfully boost population size with minimal impacts on the fitness of salmon in the wild.     

Genetic rescue of an inbred captive population of the critically endangered Puerto Rican crested toad (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Peltophryne lemur</Emphasis>) by mixing lineages

The Puerto Rican crested toad (Peltophryne lemur) is currently composed of a single wild population on the south coast of Puerto Rico and two captive populations founded by animals from the northern and southern coasts. The main factors contributing to its decline are habitat loss, inundation of breeding ponds during storms, and impacts of invasive species. Recovery efforts have been extensive, involving captive breeding and reintroductions, habitat restoration, construction of breeding ponds, and public education. To guide future conservation efforts, genetic variation and differentiation were assessed for the two captive colonies and the remaining wild population using the mitochondrial control region and six novel microsatellite loci. Only two moderately divergent mitochondrial haplotypes were found, with one fixed in each of the southern and northern lineages. Moderate genetic variation exists for microsatellite loci in all three groups. The captive southern population has not diverged substantially from the wild population at microsatellite loci (F _ST = 0.03), whereas there is little allelic overlap between the northern and southern lineages at five of six loci (F _ST > 0.3). Despite this differentiation, they are no more divergent than many populations of other amphibian species. As the northern breeding colony may not remain viable due to its small size and inbred nature, it is recommended that a third breeding colony be established in which northern and southern individuals are combined. This will preserve any northern adaptive traits that may exist, and provide animals for release in the event that the pure northern lineage becomes extirpated.     

Mate Choice by Both Sexes Maintains Reproductive Isolation in a Species Flock of Pupfish (Cyprinodon spp) in the Bahamas

Female and male mate choices can reinforce reproductive isolation after sympatric speciation. Using a binary choice design, we examine the importance of visual cues in female mate choice in all three sympatric species of pupfish on San Salvador Island. We also examine the importance of olfactory cues in female choice of the hard‐shelled invertebrate specialist (Cyprinodon brontotheroides). We examine male mate choice in two of the three species, the scale eater (C. desquamator) and the detritivore (C. variegatus). Females of all three species use visual cues and prefer conspecific males. C. brontotheroides females do not use olfactory cues to discriminate between conspecific and heterospecific males. Males of C. desquamator and C. variegatus also preferentially court conspecific females. Thus, mutual mate choice, where both females and males exhibit mate choice, acts as a strong behavioral pre‐mating isolation mechanism in these sympatrically speciated pupfish.     

Significant genetic admixture after reintroduction of peregrine falcon (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Falco peregrinus</Emphasis>) in Southern Scandinavia

The peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus) population in southern Scandinavia was almost extinct in the 1970’s. A successful reintroduction project was launched in 1974, using captive breeding birds of northern and southern Scandinavian, Finnish and Scottish origin. We examined the genetic structure in the pre-bottleneck population using eleven microsatellite markers and compared the data with the previously genotyped captive breeding population and contemporary wild population. Museum specimens between 53 and 130 years old were analyzed. Despite an apparent loss of historical genetic diversity, the contemporary population shows a relatively high level of genetic variation. Considerable gene introgression from captive breeding stock used to repopulate the former range of southern Scandinavian peregrines may have altered the genetic composition of this population. Both the historical and contemporary northern and southern Scandinavian populations are genetically differentiated. The reintroduction project implemented in the region and the use of non-native genetic stock likely prevented the southern Scandinavian population from extinction and thus helped maintain the level of genetic diversity and prevent inbreeding depression. The population is rapidly increasing in numbers and range and shows no indication of reduced fitness or adaptive capabilities in the wake of the severe bottleneck and the reintroduction.     

Genetic diversity in wild and reared populations of the Japanese bitterling <Emphasis Type="Italic">Tanakia tanago</Emphasis> (Cyprinidae)

 The Japanese bitterling Tanakia tanago is an endangered cyprinid species; thus, captive breeding programs are being conducted in various facilities as ex situ conservation. To examine the genetic diversity in one wild and three reared populations, and its changes during the process of captive breeding, sequences of the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene and control region were determined. The wild population, collected in 1993, was monomorphic. Although the reared population that originated from the wild population was almost monomorphic, a rare haplotype, distinct from all others by a relatively large sequence divergence, was also observed. In the other reared populations, some degree of genetic diversity had been maintained. A reared hybrid population, which originated from a mixture of three distinct populations, showed the greatest genetic diversity. These results suggest considerable genetic diversity within and among populations of T. tanago in the past. Although a loss of genetic diversity was observed in some year-classes of reared populations, there was no tendency for genetic diversity to decrease as a result of captive breeding, probably because offspring were obtained from multi-year-class parents in the captive breeding program. Accordingly, this breeding method should be appropriate for conserving the genetic diversity of T. tanago. Received: June 12, 2002 / Revised: December 3, 2002 / Accepted: December 16, 2002     

Genetic diversity and conservation units in wild and captive populations of endangered freshwater fishes: a case of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Hemigrammocypris rasborella</Emphasis> in Shizuoka,Japan

Population structure and genetic diversity were examined using partial mitochondrial cytochrome b gene sequences of four wild, one reintroduced, and five captive populations of the endangered cyprinid Hemigrammocypris rasborella from three river systems in the easternmost region of the species’ range in Shizuoka Prefecture, central Honshu, Japan. We detected loss of genetic diversity from portions of the wild and captive populations, as well as suspected nonindigenous haplotypes in some captive, reintroduced, and even wild populations. Given the population structure revealed, we suggest that the populations should be managed with consideration for both the endemism and viability (avoidance of inbreeding depression) of the local populations.     

Decreasing genetic diversity in wild and captive populations of endangered Itasenpara bittering (Acheilognathus longipinnis) in the Himi region,central Japan,and recommendations for conservation

Biodiversity is increasingly declining as a result of direct human impact and structural alteration of ecosystems resulting from changes in human life styles. Itasenpara bittering (Acheilognathus longipinnis), which has been maintained in floodplain and paddy fields, is a threatened cyprinid fish endemic to central Japan. To aid in the preservation of this species, information on genetic diversity and demographic variables in wild and captive populations was obtained using microsatellite DNA analysis. Temporal changes in genetic diversity and effective population size (N _e) tended to be relatively stable in the wild Moo River population, although lower values were detected in the wild Busshouji River population, suggesting an extremely high risk of extinction in the latter. Captive populations derived from the Busshouji River population demonstrated significant genetic divergence even among intrapopulational cohorts, suggesting the influence of genetic drift caused by geographic isolation and small population size. Active maintenance of genetic diversity in captive population is a necessary part of conservation programs, as are continuous addition of wild individuals and replacement of individuals among captive populations. In addition, increasing or maintaining suitable floodplain areas and artificial habitats such as paddy fields might contribute to the conservation of genetic diversity in the Itasenpara bittering.     

Rodrigues fruit bats (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Pteropus rodricensis</Emphasis>, Megachiroptera: Pteropodidae) retain genetic diversity despite population declines and founder events

Fruit bats of the genus Pteropus are important contributors to ecosystem maintenance on islands through their roles as pollinators and seed dispersers. However, island faunas are the most prone to extinction and there is a real need to assess the possible genetic implications of population reductions in terms of extinction risk. An effective method of ameliorating extinction risk in endangered species is the establishment of captive populations ex situ. The effectiveness of captive breeding programmes may be assessed by comparing the genetic variability of captive colonies to that of wild counterparts. Here, we use polymorphic microsatellite loci to assess genetic variability in wild, critically endangered Rodrigues fruit bats (Pteropus rodricensis, Dobson 1878) and we compare this variability to that in a captive colony. We document remarkable conservation of genetic variability in both the wild and captive populations, despite population declines and founder events. Our results demonstrate that the wild population has withstood the negative effects of population reductions and that captive breeding programmes can fulfil the goals of retaining genetic diversity and limiting inbreeding.