Developmental changes in the subcellular structure of the seeds of Atropa belladonna

Subcellular changes in the embryo and endosperm of Atropa belladonna were studied at four developmental stages. The endosperm cells turn to storage cells much earlier than those of the embryo, which matures later. Cells of the cotyledon and radicle are very similar in structure. The young cells contain large osmiophilic spherosomes. The cytoplasm is filled with ribosomes but dictyosomes are very rare. Some proplastids, containing starch, and mitochondria are present in the early developmental stages but do not occur in the dormant cells. During ripening, the vacuoles of the endosperm cells and embryo develop into protein bodies. They become filled with protein material without any recognisable transport mechanism. Protein bodies have several electron-translucent globoid cavities and the protein mass contains a roundish or crystalline body. This body does not stain with potassium iodide but with periodic acid Schiff-reagent and protein stains, indicating that it contains glycoproteins. The embryo and endosperm cells of ripe Atropa seeds are very similar and filled with protein bodies and small spherosomes.     

EMBRYO STRUCTURE AND STORAGE RESERVE HISTOCHEMISTRY IN THE PALM WASHINGTONIA FILIFERA

The seed of Washingtonia filifera (Lindl.) Wendl. is hemispherical and has a smooth testa. The embryo is located on the rounded side of the seed near the raphe. The embryo consists of a prominent single cotyledon, an epicotyl, and a small root apex. The shoot apex is oriented at a right angle to the long axis of the embryo and possesses 2 to 3 leaf primordia. The cotyledon functions as a storage organ and is composed of three cell types with similar ultrastructure. These three types—the parenchyma, protoderm, and procambium—can be distinguished on the basis of position, size, and shape. The procambial strands in the cotyledon consist of a ring of bundles grouped into two distinct sympodia and extend from beneath the shoot apical meristem to the tip of the cotyledon where they are situated very close to the surface. The most prominent organelles within all cell types are protein bodies, lipid bodies, and crystalline protein fibers. The protein bodies contain small crystalline inclusions which are presumed to be phytin. Protein bodies in the protoderm were smaller, denser-staining, and contained fewer crystalline inclusions than those in the parenchyma or procambium. On a volume basis, the parenchyma was shown to be 43% protein bodies, 25% lipid bodies, 15% cytoplasm, 7% cell wall, 4% intercellular space, 2% nuclei, and 4% other organelles (mitochondria and plastids).     

Protein bodies of castor bean endosperm: isolation, fractionation, and the characterization of protein components

Protein bodies in the endosperm of castor bean seeds (Ricinus communis L.) contain phytin globoids and protein crystalloids embedded in an amorphous proteinaceous matrix. The protein bodies are apparently surrounded by a single membrane. The protein bodies were isolated by grinding and centrifuging in glycerol. Such isolated protein bodies were almost identical (after cytological fixation) to those observed in situ, except that the globoids were lost. However, membrane-like structures appear to have surrounded the globoids. Histochemical analysis of the isolated protein bodies showed that carbohydrates (glycoproteins) are localized only in the matrix region.     

甘蓝型油菜(Brassica napus L.)胚胎发育过程中子叶叶肉细胞的超微结构观察

用透射电镜观察了开花后20天、30天和50天的甘蓝型油菜子叶叶肉细胞的超微结构。鱼雷形胚时子叶细胞中富含核糖体和内质网并开始形成脂体。蛋白质的积累迟于油脂,开花后30天时液泡中出现蛋白质体。胚成熟时细胞中大量脂体相互挤压成多边形并围绕在蛋白质体周围,少有细胞器。整个观察过程中质体始终缺乏精细的片层结构,胚成熟时细胞中质体数显著减少。对质体在胚胎发育过程中的功能及其与低亚麻酸育种的关系进行了讨论。     

Lytic bodies from cereals hydrolysing maltose and starch

Protein bodies and spherosomes from sorghum contained carbohydrase activity against maltose, starch and p-nitrophenyl-α-d-glucoside. Maltase activities in sorghum and also in maize lytic bodies were very high; carbohydrase activities of lytic bodies from whole wheat, whole barley, sorghum aleurone, sorghum embryo and maize embryo were considerably lower. The pH response of sorghum lytic bodies was bimodal with an optimum in the range of 3·4–4·2 and a minimum or a shoulder near pH 3·8. Protein bodies from sorghum, maize, wheat and barley reduced the iodine-colouring capacity of soluble starch to give a purple colour typical of a β-limit dextrin. With spherosomes colour reduction was usually more rapid, eventually taking the breakdown of starch beyond the achroic point. The lytic bodies produce both maltose and glucose from starch, except in the case of maize when only glucose was found. The data suggest that protein bodies contain a linked β-amylase-maltase system and that spherosomes contain a linked α-amylase-maltase system.     

Correlated in situ hybridisation and immunochemical studies of legumin storage protein deposition in pea (Pisum sativum L.)

Legumin and vicilin are the major globulin seed storage proteins of pea. They are synthesised predominantly in the cotyledons where they are sequestered within membrane-bounded vacuolar protein bodies. In situ hybridisation histochemistry, with both biotinylated and ³⁵S-labelled cDNA probes, has been used to visualise the temporal and spatial patterns of distribution of legumin and vicilin mRNAs during seed development. These patterns have been compared with those of storage protein deposition which have been determined by immunocytochemistry. Results indicate that within the cotyledons high levels of legumin and civilin mRNAs are restricted to the storage parenchyma tissues, whilst the epidermal cells and vascular parenchyma do not show such accumulation. The tissues of the embryo axis also show differential levels of expression, although where present the levels of mRNAs appear much lower than in the cotyledons. Throughout the embryo the patterns shown by in situ hybridisation are similar to those shown by immunocytochemistry, although the transient endosperm of early seed development does not show such a correlation.     

The Localization of Oat (Avena sativa L.) Seed Globulins in Protein Bodies

The major storage proteins of the oat grain are the 12S and7S globulins. Using sodium dodecyl sulphate-polyacrylamide gelelectrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) and immuno-difTusion assays we havedemonstrated that the 7S globulin is localized predominantlyin the embryo and the 12S globulin chiefly in the endosperm.Protein bodies have been isolated using aqueous and non-aqueousmedia and sucrose density gradient ultracentrifugation. Assayingmarker enzymes gave results consistent with the presence ofvacuolar protein bodies in the preparations. SDS-PAGE of sequentialsalt and alcohol extractions demonstrated the presence of globulinsand prolamins respectively and their distribution within thegradient suggested that they may be localized in different proteinbodies. Key words: Avena sativa L., Seed globulins, Protein bodies, Localization.     

Studies on Embryo Development and Deposition of Storage Reserves in Coix lacryma-jobi

Embryo development in Coix lacryma-jobi is classified into the following stages: proembryo before club-shaped, club-shaped, coleoptilar, I-leafed, 2-1eared, 3-1eared, 4-1eared, 5-leafed and 6-leafed (mature embryo). The 3-, 4-, 5-leafed embryos have 1, 2 and 3 adventitious roots (seminal roots) respectively, and the matrue also has 3. These seminal roots are arranged in a longitudinal row parallelling with the radicle. The storage reserves first deposit in the scutellar cells. 9 days after anthesis (l-leafed stage), the starch grains are accumulated in cells of scutellum, coleoptile and mesocotyle. When the embryo matures, starch grains are deposited throughout its cells. The increase in size and amount of starch grains correlates with the initiation and growth order of the embryonic organs. But the amount in the scutellar cells decreases from later to mature stage. 10 days after anthesis (2-leafed stage), protein bodies containing crystals, of protein and phytin are present in the scutellar cells. They subsequently become larger and abundant druses. At the same time some protein bodies without crystals are also formed. Later, the protein bodies containing crystals disappear, while those without crystals increase until the embryo matures. 13 days after anthesis (3- leafed stage) protein bodlies are formed in the upper coleoptile cells. Protein bodies are rich in the cells of mature embryo, but the earlier the organ of embryo occurs, the more and the larger protein bodies it contains. 10 days after anthesis, lipid bodies appear in the scutellar cells and increase in size and quantity rapidly as the embryo develops. The correlation of the length of caryopsis and scutellum with embryo development is also observed.     

Acid Hydrolases and Autolytic Properties of Protein Bodies and Spherosomes Isolated from Ungerminated Seeds of Sorghum bicolor (Linn.) Moench

Protein bodies and spherosomes isolated from mature seeds of Sorghum bicolor (Linn.) Moench have measurable activity of acid protease, α-glucosidase, β-glucosidase, β-galactosidase, phytase, acid pyrophosphatase, p-nitrophenyl phosphatase, and RNase. Protein bodies have largely insoluble activities, and produce soluble protein and soluble amino nitrogen during autolysis. They have the dual function of protein storage and protein catabolism. Spherosomes have considerable amounts of soluble enzymes and autolytically produce soluble amino nitrogen and inorganic phosphate but release little soluble protein. Spherosomes are similar to animal lysosomes but have an additional storage function for protein, phosphorus, and metals. Mature sorghum seed contains the necessary enzymes and substrates to generate two basic metabolites, amino acids and inorganic phosphate.     

Recombinant eggshell ovocalyxin-32: expression, purification and biological activity of the glutathione S-transferase fusion protein

The avian eggshell is a highly ordered biomineral composed mainly of calcium carbonate associated with an organic matrix composed of proteins, glycoproteins and proteoglycans. This structure provides the developing embryo with protection from physical damage and microbial invasion. Ovocalyxin-32 (OCX-32) is a 32 kDa eggshell-specific matrix protein which has been cloned and demonstrates 30% identity with the mammalian carboxypeptidase inhibitor, latexin. In order to further study its function, recombinant OCX-32 protein was expressed in E. coli. The protein was extracted from inclusion bodies and purified by sequential DEAE Sepharose and Ni2+ metal ion affinity chromatographies as a 58 kDa GST-fusion protein. The refolded GST-OCX-32 significantly inhibited bovine carboxypeptidase and also inhibited the growth of Bacillus subtilis. The results suggest that OCX-32 may show similar activity to the fusion protein and reinforce the antimicrobial properties of the eggshell by providing protection to the developing avian embryo. OCX-32 is the first example of an eggshell specific protein to be successfully cloned and expressed in a prokaryotic system. The association of an antimicrobial protease inhibitor with the outer eggshell and cuticle of the table egg may enhance the food safety of this product.     

薏苡胚发育及贮藏营养物质积累的研究

薏苡（Ｃｏｉｘ ｌａｃｒｙｍ ａ－ｊｏｂｉ）胚发育分下列各期：棒形胚前的原胚期、棒形胚期、胚芽鞘期、１叶期、２ 叶期、３叶期、４ 叶期、５ 叶期及６叶期成熟胚。３ 叶期胚具１ 条不定根（种子根）,４ 叶期具２ 条,５ 叶期及成熟胚期具３ 条。不定根与胚根排成１ 纵行。营养物质最先在盾片细胞中积累。开花后９ 天的１ 叶期胚,在盾片、胚芽鞘及胚轴细胞中积累了淀粉,以后遍及成熟胚的各部分。淀粉粒含量与器官发生及生长顺序成正相关,但发育后期,盾片细胞内的淀粉粒含量下降。开花后１０ 天,盾片细胞中形成含晶体的蛋白质体,晶体含蛋白质及植酸钙镁。以后,这种蛋白质体增多、增大。同时,又形成不含晶体的蛋白质体。一定时期,含晶体的蛋白质体消失,不含晶体的蛋白质体增多,直到胚成熟。开花后１３ 天,胚芽鞘上部细胞形成蛋白质体。以后遍及成熟胚的各部分,器官发生越早,所含蛋白质体越多、越大。开花后１０ 天,盾片细胞中产生了脂体,成熟胚的盾片细胞,含有大量的脂体。还观察了胚发育各期与颖果及盾片长度的对应关系     

Suborganellar localization of proteinase catalyzing the limited hydrolysis of pumpkin globulin

Protein bodies were prepared from the cotyledons of pumpkin (Cucurbita sp.) seeds by employing a nonaqueous isolation method. Both light micrographic examination and the marker enzyme assays have shown that the isolated protein bodies were intact and contamination with other cell organelles or cytoplasmic components was negligible. A proteolytic enzyme catalyzing the limited hydrolysis of carboxymethylated γ′ chain of globulin was found to be present in the protein bodies. The specific activity in the protein body (18 units per milligram protein) was higher than that in the whole cell extract (13 units per milligram protein), indicating that the limited proteolytic enzyme was localized in the protein body.

After lysis of the protein bodies using hypotonic buffer solution, the suborganellar components (matrix, membranes, and crystalloids) were separated by sucrose density gradient centrifugation. The crystalloid was composed of only globulin, a major seed protein. The major proteins of matrix and membrane fractions were shown to have mol wt of approximately 10,000. About 90% of the limited proteolytic activity was found in the matrix region.

     

Dynamic of reserve compounds of mesocarp and seeds of macaw palm (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Acrocomia aculeata)</Emphasis> submitted to different storage conditions

Key message

Storage changed carbohydrate and protein levels, which can be related to embryo viability. The fatty acid profile was constant, and the embryo composition was similar to the mesocarp, not the endosperm.

Abstract

Macaw palm fruits have a diverse biochemical constitution, and there is significant commercial interest in this species among food, pharmaceutical, cosmetics, and bioenergy industries. We evaluated changes in the reserve compounds of macaw palm mesocarp and seeds from fruits stored for 1 year under three different conditions. Protein and carbohydrate levels were highest in the embryo than in the endosperm. Fatty acid profiles were very similar over time under all storage conditions and in each structure evaluated, with the embryo composition being very similar to the mesocarp. Macaw palm oil remained well preserved under all storage conditions tested, but seed reserves and seed viability are best maintained at room temperatures. The endosperm contained higher levels of saturated fatty acids than either the embryo or mesocarp, making seeds more resistant to oxidative deterioration than the mesocarp. The results showed that the composition of the mesocarp oil promises the production of high-quality biodiesel from this structure, and changes in carbohydrate and protein levels show that laboratory conditions are the most efficient for maintaining seed quality during storage.

     

Early Stages in Wheat Endosperm Formation and Protein Body Initiation

The early stages of endosperm formation and protein body initiationare described for hard red winter wheat using light and transmissionelectron microscopy. Two days after flowering (DAF) the endospermwas a thin layer of coenocytic cytoplasm lining the embryo sac.By 4 DAF the endosperm had cellularized and completely filledthe embryo sac. Enough differentiation had occurred by 6 DAFto distinguish cells destined to become the aleurone layer,sub-aleurone region and central endosperm. Protein bodies wereinitiated at about 6–7 DAF and were first found near theGolgi apparatus. Wheat was ready for combine harvest at 34 DAF.Enlargement of the small protein bodies near the Golgi apparatusoccurred by several mechanisms: (1) fusion with one or moreof the dense Golgi vesicles or fusion with other protein bodies,(2) fusion with small electron-lucent Golgi-derived vesicles,(3) pinocytosis of a portion of the adjacent cytoplasm intothe developing protein body and (4) fusion of large proteinbodies with one another at later stages of grain development.Of the four mechanisms described, the pinocytotic vesicles andfusion of protein bodies were the most frequent and consistentprocesses observed. Direct connections between rough endoplasmicreticulum (RER) and protein bodies were not observed. The resultssuggest a rôle for the Golgi apparatus in the initiationof protein bodies. Also, the lack of RER derived vesicles suggestsa soluble mode of secretion of storage proteins involved inthe enlargement of protein bodies. Triticum aestivum, wheat endosperm, protein bodies Golgi apparatus     

Tobacco embryogenesis: Storage-protein-accumulating cells of embryo, suspensor, and endosperm are able to undergo cytokinesis

Summary It is widely accepted that seed storage proteins accumulate only in cells which have entered the cell expansion phase and do not continue to divide. Here we present data indicating that the accumulation of storage globulins in tobacco begins already during early embryogenesis in a period of sustained mitotic activity. Western blot analysis revealed that polypeptides of the legumin-like 12S globulins (M_r 60000, 40000, 20000) appear at mid/late globular stage, whereas the vicilin-like 7S globulin (M_r 50000) follows during the transition from heart to torpedo stage. The accumulation of legumin-like polypeptides begins first in the endosperm during the mid globular stage followed in the embryo-suspensor complex during the heart-shaped stage. The vicilin-related fraction appears first in the endosperm and three days later in the embryo. Examination of individual cells from squash preparations revealed that protein bodies are not confined to intermitotic cells, but are also present in cells undergoing mitosis. Protein bodies of dividing cells situated outside the mitotic apparatus are not metabolized during cytokinesis. The only cell type which loses its protein bodies completely prior to the first mitotic division is the primary hypophysis cell. Our finding that storage proteins can occur in dividing cells independent of their origin and developmental capacity indicates that the cell expansion hypothesis of storage protein accumulation has to be revised.     

Accumulation of Metabolites during Seed Development in Trifolium repens L.

Metabolite deposition during seed development was examined histochemicallyin Trifolium repens by light- and fluorescence microscopy. Allendosperm haustorium at the chalazal pole of the embryo sacand wall protrusions in cell walls of the suspensor and theembryo sac suggest that transfer of metabolites from maternalto offspring tissue takes place primarily at these sites. Thisis further supported by prominent cutinization of the interpolarregion of the embryo sac wall, accumulation of starch in integumentaltissue at the embryo sac poles, and breakdown of interpolarendothelial cells. Decomposition of osteosclereid starch isfollowed by accumulation in the cellular endosperm and subsequentlyin the embryo parallel to endosperm degradation. The starchaccumulates gradually inward from the subepidermal cells ofthe embryo to the stele. Protein bodies are formed in the vacuolesalong the tonoplast, later to be cut off in vesicles releasedinto the cytoplasm. At maturity the embryo is packed with proteinand starch, but without lipid reserves. Phytin is observed inthe protein bodies. The mature embryo is surrounded by a proteinand starch containing aleurone layer which originates from theendosperm.Copyright 1994, 1999 Academic Press White clover, protein, starch, cuticle, embryo sac wall     

ENDOSPERM STRUCTURE AND STORAGE RESERVE HISTOCHEMISTRY IN THE PALM,WASHINGTONIA FILIFERA

The endosperm of Washingtonia filifera consists of living cells with the same general cellular structure throughout the seed. The major storage reserves are carbohydrate, stored in the form of thickened walls; lipid, stored as numerous small lipid bodies which fill the cytoplasm; and protein, stored as large, but variably-sized, protein bodies. The protein bodies contain two types of inclusions: prismatically-shaped denser protein crystalloids and small crystalline deposits presumed to be phytic acid. The X-ray microanalysis shows these crystalline inclusions do contain P, Ca, Mg, and Fe. Protein bodies are positively stained with PAS. Nuclei are present in all cells, but stain very palely. Plastids and mitochondria are present, but infrequently seen. The plastids have few, poorly developed membranes. Endoplsasmic reticulum and dictyosomes are lacking. The cell wall is thick except in areas of pit fields and consists of three layers which differ in their staining with toluidine blue and in their ultrastructural characteristics: middle lamella, thickened outer wall, and thin inner wall. All wall layers are positively stained with PAS and calcofluor. Although general structural features of the endosperm in Washingtonia filifera are similar to those in date seeds, the composition of the wall polysaccharides and protein bodies appear to differ somewhat.     

The protein,lipid and carbohydrate composition of protein bodies from Lupinus angustifolius seeds

Protein bodies isolated from dehulled seeds of Lupinus angustifolius (cv New Zealand Bitter Blue) contained 73 % protein, of which 78 % were globul     

Isolation and Analysis of Protein Bodies from Cotyledons of Lablab purpureus and Phaseolus vulgaris (Leguminoseae)

Protein bodies, isolated by differential and isopycnic centrifugation, have been observed in transmission and scanning electron microscope and biochemically analysed. The powders of the axes and of the cotyledons contain numerous protein bodies, which in the scanning microscope appear to be surrounded by a more or less torn membrane. The proportion of intact, isolated protein bodies is influenced by the grinding methods, but even in the best conditions soaking disaggregates the majority of them. After isopycnic centrifugation, their debris gather in different density zones. Analyses of each zone have revealed that the caseinases are associated with particles of higher density than are peptidases and trypsin inhibitors. A minority population of small-size protein bodies resists the homogenization and fractioning modalities. A double origin of the protein bodies is considered.     

Storage reserves and cellular water in mature seeds of Araucaria angustifolia

Seed tissues of Araucaria angustifolia (Bertol.) Kuntze were investigated using histochemistry, transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and energy dispersive X-ray (EDX) analysis. Moisture content and water status in tissues were also evaluated. In the embryo, TEM studies revealed the presence of one to several central vacuoles and a peripheral layer of cytoplasm in cells from different tissues of the cotyledons and axis. In the cytoplasm, lipid bodies, starch grains, mitochondria and a nucleus are evident. In most tissues, vacuoles contain proteins, indicating that the storage proteins are highly hydrated. In cells of the root cap, proteins are stored in discrete protein bodies. Both protein storage vacuoles and discrete protein bodies have inclusions of crystal globoids. EDX analysis of globoids revealed the presence of P, K and Mg as the main constituents and traces of S, Ca and Fe. In the root and shoot meristems, deposits of phytoferritin are present in the stroma of proplastids. The gametophyte consists of cells characterized by relatively thin cell walls and one to several nuclei per cell. Protein and lipid bodies are present, although starch is the most conspicuous reserve. Immediately after shedding, moisture content is approximately 145% (dry weight) for the embryo and 95% (dry weight) for the gametophyte. Calorimetric studies reveal that axes and cotyledons have a very high content of freezable water, corresponding to types 5 and 4, i.e. dilute and concentrated (or capillary) solution, respectively. The results are discussed in relation to the behaviour of the species, which has been categorized as recalcitrant.  © 2002 The Linnean Society of London . Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society , 2002, 140 , 273−281.