The fleas of a population of weasels in Wytham Woods, Oxford

Weasels were regularly livetrapped, anaesthetized and searched for fleas over two years, in Wytham Woods, near Oxford. Eleven species of fleas were identified among 262 collected. Seven normally occur on small rodents, one on rats, two on moles and one on birds. Fleas were collected on 103 of 338 occasions when an unconscious weasel was examined; on average males carried 0·6 fleas, females 1·5 fleas, but there was no significant difference between the proportion of males and females infested. The species distribution of the fleas on weasels in Wytham suggests that they acquire their fleas mainly from the nests and runways of their prey, which they have hunted through or taken over. Important prey, e.g. birds (22% of prey items identified) with uninviting nests contributed few fleas (2%); non-prey, e.g. moles (0–4% of items) with highly desirable nests, contributed disproportionately many, including 35 fleas (15%) of two species otherwise monoxenous on moles. A similar pattern is shown by the fleas carried by stoats in New Zealand.     

Interacting effects of aromatic plants and female age on nest-dwelling ectoparasites and blood-sucking flies in avian nests

Some avian species incorporate aromatic plants to their nests. The "nest protection hypothesis", which posits that volatile secondary compounds contained in these plants may have antiparasite properties, has not received full support. All previous tests of this hypothesis have only considered effects on nest-dwelling ectoparasites, but not on blood-sucking flies. The "drug hypothesis" posits that aromatic plants may stimulate nestling immune system, development, or condition. We tested these hypotheses experimentally in wild blue tits, Cyanistes caeruleus, a species that adds aromatic plants to their nests. We supplemented aromatic plants to half of a sample of nests, while adding grass to the other half of nests. We quantified abundance of two groups of blood-sucking flies (blackflies and biting midges) at two different stages of the reproductive period, and abundance of three nest-dwelling ectoparasites (fleas, mites, and blowflies). Experimental supplementation of aromatic plants reduced abundance of fleas only in nests of yearling females and not in nests of older females. Blackflies and biting midges were both more numerous in nests of yearling females than in nests of older females. Mass of aromatic plants added by females was negatively related with abundance of fleas in control nests but not in experimental nests supplied with aromatic plants. Mass of plants added by females was also positively related with abundance of blackflies during the nestling stage. Finally, aromatic plants did not affect nestling growth or immune responses. We conclude that several factors such as female experience and their ability to add plants to the nest interact to explain effects of aromatic plants on different parasites.     

Parasite fauna of the water vole (Arvicola terrestris) and its nests in the south of Western Siberia

Fauna of parasitic and free-living arthropods associated the water vole Arvicola terestris and its nests in various landscape zones and subzones of the south of Western Siberia has been studied. Total abundance of gamasid mites and ticks (Gamasoidea, Ixodidae), fleas and nidicolous arthropods in nests is high, and the set of nidicolous and parasite species is quite diverse, but everywhere the parasite fauna is characterized by a small amount of species reaching a high abundance: Laelaps muris on the voles, Haemogamasus ambulans in nests, Ixodes apronophorus and Megpbotris walkeri both on the voles and nests. Parasitic arthropods living on the voles or in their nests are characterized by higher and stables indices of infection, while these parameters for free-living arthropods were variable. The list of mesostigmatic mites parasitizing the water vole and its nests in the south of Western Siberia (Adamovich, Krylov, 2001) has been considerably supplemented. In total, the fauna of parsitiform mites (Acari: Mesostigmata and Ixodiddes) and fleas (Siphonaptera) associated with the water vole in the south of Western Siberia is represented by 97 arthropod species of 19 families, including 74 species of mesostigmatic mites (Gamasoidea), 6 species of ticks (Ixodidae) and 17 species of fleas.     

Ecology of Lepidoptera associated with bird nests in mid‐Wales,UK

1. Bird nests are ubiquitous but patchy resources in many terrestrial habitats. Nests can support diverse communities of commensal invertebrates, especially moths (Lepidoptera). However, there is a shortage of information on the moths associated with bird nests, and the factors influencing their abundance, diversity and composition. 2. Two hundred and twenty‐four nests, from 16 bird species, were sampled from sites in mid‐Wales (UK) and the moths that emerged from them were recorded. 3. Seventy eight percent of nests produced moths, with 4657 individuals of ten species recorded. Moth communities were dominated by generalist species rather than bird nest specialists. 4. Open nests built in undergrowth supported significantly fewer moths than nests in enclosed spaces (for example, nesting boxes). The occurrence of fleas was positively associated with the incidence and abundance of moths. There was no evidence that different nest types supported different moth communities.     

Arthropods (Acarina, Coleoptera, Siphonaptera) in nests of hoopoe (Upupa epops) in Central Europe

In 1993–1995 and 2009–2011, during investigation of reproduction biology of hoopoe, 63 nests of this species were collected after fledging of the chicks in Slovakia and Austria and their arthropod fauna was analyzed. Altogether 5,481 individuals and 34 species of mesostigmatic mites were found in 82.5% of the nests examined. The nidicolous mite Androlaelaps casalis was most abundant and frequent, representing 91.7% of all individuals. The richest in species were saprophilous mites (64.7% of all recorded species), while ectoparasites of the genera Dermanyssus and Ornithonyssus represented only 0.4% of all mites. Only 8 beetle species represented by 65 individuals were found in 18 nests. The dominant trophical group were carnivores (mainly nidicolous Gnathoncus buyssoni) with almost identical representation in (86.2%), followed by a similar representation of necrophags (10.8%). Unlike nests of other birds, the typical nidicolous species Haploglossa puncticollis and the fungivors were absent due to the dry character of studied countryside and placement of the nests in boxes situated in vineyard cottages. Only one species of fleas, Ceratophyllus gallinae — parasitizing first of all in the passeriform birds and being particularly abundant in the cavity nesting birds was recorded in hoopoe nests.     

Composition and seasonal changes of mesostigmatic mites (Acari) and fleas fauna (Siphonaptera) in the nests of Mus spicilegus (Mammalia: Rodentia)

Together 22,119 individuals and 47 species of mesostigmatic mites, and 485 individuals of fleas belonging to 6 species were obtained from 16 winter nests of mound-building mouse, Mus spicilegus. The most abundant mite species were Laelaps algericus (38.2%), Androlaelaps fahrenholzi (20.9%), Proctolaelaps pygmaeus (16.9%) and Alliphis halleri (8.3%). Ctenophthalmus assimilis (87%) was the highly predominant flea, present in all the positive nests. On the basis of trophic and topic relations, mites were assorted into four ecological groups; parasites had the highest abundance (67% of all individuals). The density peak values of individual ecological mite groups differed the during season. The population peak of the predominant mite species L. algericus was in December, predominance of females was registered throughout the study period. The maximum abundance of fleas was reported in January and May.     

Arthropods in the nests of lesser spotted eagle (Aquila pomarina)

In 2001–2007, altogether 57 nests of lesser spotted eagle were collected in the Orava region in northwestern Slovakia and four groups of arthropods were extracted from them. Richest in number of species and individuals were mites (23 species, 17,500 ind.), followed by beetles (12 species, 725 ind.), whereas pseudoscorpions were represented only by Pselaphochernes scorpioides (39 ind.) and fleas by Ceratophyllus garei (3 ind.). Unlike nests of other birds, free-living mites predominated in the nests fauna (83% of individuals), followed by nidicolous species with more or less free relationship to the nests, while parasitic species represented only a negligible part of the fauna. For the first time we observed phoresy of Nenteria pandioni, a specific and abundant mite in the eagles’ nests, on the nidicolous staphylinid Haploglossa puncticollis. The beetle fauna in the nests was much poorer than in nests of other birds. The predatory H. puncticollis was dominant in the nests (83%) and occurred continuously during the whole investigation period. Other beetles, even the widely distributed nidicols such as the histerid Gnathoncus buyssoni, were found rarely in nests. Predators were also the only abundant trophic group of beetles in the nests, while other trophic groups of beetles abundantly co-occur in nests of majority of other birds. The occurrence of all beetles was very unevenly distributed during the investigation period, but was positively correlated with occurrence of mites. The relatively low number of species and individuals of mites and beetles in the lesser spotted eagle nests resulted from their position on tree tops, at a height of 20–30 m and their quick drying out by sun and wind. It was also indicated by an enormously low number of species and individuals of mycetophagous beetles, which represent a significant component of the fauna in nests of other birds.     

Ectoparasitism in marsh tits: costs and functional explanations

Among hole-nesting birds, the blood-sucking hen flea is a commonparasite affecting both nestlings and parents. By adding fleasto marsh tit (Parus palustris) nests, I aimed to investigatethe effect of fleas on nestling growth rate and parental effortas well as evaluating a potential mechanism by which fleas affectnestlings (i.e., resting metabolic rate; RMR). Nestlings fromflea-infested broods were lighter than nestlings from controlbroods. This reduced growth rate was evident as soon as 3 daysafter adding extra fleas to the nest, but the reduction didnot increase after this initial drop in mass. Parents did notalter their feeding frequency in response to the manipulation;thus the small size of nestlings in manipulated nests seemsto be directly caused by the fleas. Mass-specific RMR was significantlyhigher in nestlings from flea-infested nests compared to nestlingsfrom control nests. I used the results to evaluate the suggestedmechanisms for parasite-related decrease in host growth rate.The increase in RMR and the very rapid reduction in nestlinggrowth rate after experimental addition of fleas can be explainedby an immune reaction, mainly by the innate immune system, tosubstances in the saliva of the fleas.     

Variable effects of the Hen Flea Ceratophyllus gallinae on the breeding success of the Great Tit Parus major in relation to weather conditions

We investigated the effect of an ectoparasite, the Hen Flea Ceratophyllus gallinae (Siphonaptera), on the reproductive success of the Great Tit Parus major, a hole-nesting passerine bird. Parasite levels of cleaned nesting boxes were experimentally manipulated during the egg-laying period of the birds either by spraying nests with pyrethrin or by introducing c. 100 adult fleas, while other nests were left as controls. Only in 2 out of 5 years did hen fleas significantly affect reproductive success. Nestlings from parasitized nests showed reduced body-mass, tarsus-length and condition, whereas wing-length did not differ between nestlings reared with or without fleas. The impact of the fleas on the growth performance of host nestlings was more noticeable in years with lower temperatures and higher precipitation.     

Sampling fleas: the reliability of host infestation data

The use of measures of host infestation as a reliable indicator of a flea population size to be used in interspecific comparisons was considered. The abundance of fleas collected from host bodies and collected from host burrows was compared among 55 flea species, controlling for the effect of flea phylogeny. The mean number of fleas on host bodies correlated positively with the mean number of fleas in host burrows/nests both when the entire data pool was analysed and for separate subsets of data on 'fur' fleas and 'nest' fleas. This was also true for a within-host (Microtus californicus) between-flea comparison. The results of this study demonstrate that, in general, the index of host body infestation by fleas can be used reliably as an indicator of the entire population size.     

Ectoparasites,nest site choice and breeding success in the pied flycatcher

It has recently been suggested that nest box studies might bias the measurement of behavioural and life-history traits, because the removal of old nests may reduce the load of ectoparasites. This experimental artefact may have notable effects on nest site choice and breeding success in cavity-breeding birds. We tested (i) if pied flycatchers Ficedula hypoleuca prefer clean nest boxes and (ii) if old nest material affects the number of parasites and the breeding success of pied flycatchers. In the first experiment we offered birds one cleaned nest box and one nest box with old nest material from the previous year. The two nest boxes were placed in very similar sites near each other. In this experiment all pied flycatchers clearly preferred dirty nest boxes. In the second part of the study we distributed clean nest boxes and dirty ones on the same study area. After breeding was over we counted the number of fleas Ceratophyllus gallinae in the nest material. This flea species was the most abundant and probably the most hazardous parasite in the nests. Surprisingly, we found that there were significantly more fleas in the nest boxes with nests of the current year only than in the boxes with nests of both current and previous year. This might explain the preference for the dirty boxes. However, our results do not indicate that the number of fleas affects breeding success in the pied flycatcher.     

Of fleas and geese: the impact of an increasing nest ectoparasite on reproductive success

Past studies on the relationship between nest ectoparasites and avian fitness have been primarily limited to altricial hosts. Life history strategies of precocial and altricial birds vary considerably, limiting our ability to infer the effect of nest parasites on fitness of precocial species. Ross's Chen rossii and lesser snow goose Chen caerulescens caerulescens populations have been growing at unprecedented high rates. New limiting factors on vital rates of these precocial birds may arise after populations have been released from previously regulating factors. The flea Ceratophyllus vagabundus vagabundus is an apparently newly emerging nest parasite in the arctic goose colony at Karrak Lake, Nunavut, Canada. We examined the relationship between flea abundance (measured by the proportion of goose eggs covered by blood in each nest) and goose reproductive success from 2001–2004. In three of four years of study, nest success was inversely related to flea abundance in nests. Despite the potential for high costs to individuals, the overall effects of fleas on goose nesting success have thus far been small. We demonstrated that nest parasites negatively influence reproductive success of precocial bird hosts despite host life history strategy of leaving the nest quickly after hatch, which results in minimal exposure to nest parasites compared to altricial birds that raise their young in the nest.     

Mesostigmatic mites (Acari: Mesostigmata) in nests of the Eurasian griffon vulture (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Gyps fulvus</Emphasis>) in Croatia

We examined the species composition and community structure of mites of the order Mesostigmata (Acari) in nests of the Eurasian griffon vulture (Gyps fulvus Hablizl, 1783) in Croatia. Material collected from 18 nests included 565 mites belonging to seven species. The most abundant species were Leiodinychus orbicularis (C.L. Koch, 1839) (Trematuridae) and Androlaelaps casalis (Berlese, 1887) (Laelapidae). The results were compared with the community structure and frequency of dominant species of Mesostigmata in nests of 32 other bird species. Leiodinychus orbicularis occurred in the nests of 13 species of birds. It is a typical nidicolous species which occurs most frequently in the perennial nests of birds of prey. In contrast, A. casalis rarely occurs in the nests of birds of prey.     

Aspergillus fumigatus and Other Thermophilic Fungi in Nests of Wetland Birds

A study was performed on the numbers and species diversity of thermophilic fungi (growing at 45 °C in vitro) in 38 nests of 9 species of wetland birds, taking into account the physicochemical properties of the nests and the bird species. It was found that in nests with the maximum weight (nests of Mute Swan), the number and diversity of thermophilic fungi were significantly greater than in other nests, with lower weight. The diversity of the thermophilic biota was positively correlated with the individual mass of bird and with the level of phosphorus in the nests. The dominant species within the mycobiota under study was Aspergillus fumigatus which inhabited 95 % of the nests under study, with average frequency of ca. 650 cfu g^?1 of dry mass of the nest material. In a majority of the nests studied (nests of 7 bird species), the share of A. fumigatus exceeded 50 % of the total fungi growing at 45 °C. Significantly higher frequencies of the fungal species were characteristic of the nests of small and medium-sized piscivorous species, compared with the other bird species. The number of A. fumigatus increased with increase in the moisture level of the nests, whereas the frequency of occurrence of that opportunistic pathogen, opposite to the general frequency of thermophilic mycobiota, was negatively correlated with the level of phosphorus in the nest material, and with the body mass and length of the birds. The authors indicate the causes of varied growth of thermophilic fungi in nests of wetland birds and, in particular, present a discussion of the causes of accumulation of A. fumigatus, the related threats to the birds, and its role as a source of transmission in the epidemiological chain of aspergillosis.     

Fleas (Siphonaptera) infesting birds of West Siberian plain

The four species of fleas associated with birds in West Siberian Plain have been recorded. Ceratophyllus styx is a specific parasite of Riparia riparia. Ceratophyllus garei, C. gallinae, and C. tribulis parasitize various setting of birds.     

The variation in population densities of fleas in house martin nests in Leicestershire

Abstract. 1. Five species of flea were recorded from 150 nests taken from house eaves in Leicestershire. Three species, C.hirundinis, C.farreniand C.rusticus , were associated with nests used for breeding by martins in the year of collection whilst C.gallinae and C.fringillae were associated with nests used by sparrows.
2. Analysis of the three species of martin fleas with various characteristics of the structure and location of the nest revealed that all three species favoured the presence of nest lining consisting of feathers or grass (or the two combined) in preference to straw or to no nest lining.
3. Both C.hirundinis and C.rusticus showed a preference for the texture of the surface to which the nest was attached, the former preferring nests attached to plain brick, or pebble-dashed surfaces, whilst the latter preferred pebble-dash to stone. Both also showed a relation with the height of the nest above ground level.
4. The numbers of C.hirundinus showed a strong positive correlation with those of C.farreni and C.rusticus , which were not correlated with each other.
5. Lastly, the number of nests collected that had been used by house sparrows and contained C.gallinae and C.fringillae was too small to allow us to reach any conclusion about their preferences.     

GRASSLAND BIRDS NESTING IN HAYLANDS OF SOUTHERN SASKATCHEWAN: LANDSCAPE INFLUENCES AND CONSERVATION PRIORITIES

Abstract: To determine the benefits to grassland birds of converting cropland to hayland in southern Saskatchewan, Canada, we quantified the relative nest abundance and success of grassland nesting birds in haylands and the influence landscape variables have on these parameters. We found nests of 26 species of grassland nesting birds, primarily waterfowl and vesper sparrow (Pooecetes gramineus). With the exception of the northern pintail (Anas acuta), few nesting attempts were recorded for species of high priority in the Prairie Pothole Bird Conservation Region. Mayfield nest success for all waterfowl (20 and 13% in 1999 and 2000, respectively) was high relative to previously reported nest success estimates in other habitat types—especially spring-seeded cropland—and was near levels thought to be required to sustain populations (15–20%). Vesper sparrow nest success (39 and 33% in 1999 and 2000, respectively) also was high relative to that reported in other studies. Haying destroyed few nests as wet weather delayed operations in 1999 and 2000. More nests may be destroyed by haying in other years as approximately 25% of nests in this study were still active on the long-term average haying date for southern Saskatchewan. Among models we developed to explain waterfowl relative nest abundance, amount of cropland in the surrounding landscape and field area were the most informative. Evidence that a specific set of landscape variables was important to models of waterfowl nest success was equivocal. Landscape variables did not explain variation in vesper sparrow relative nest abundance or nest success. Within our study area, conversion of cropland to hayland appears to provide significant benefits to a variety of grassland species, including some species of high conservation priority (e.g., northern pintail). Grassland species of conservation concern nested less frequently in hayland than in native grassland.     

Effects of fleas on nest success of Arctic barnacle geese: experimentally testing the mechanism

Parasites have detrimental effects on their hosts’ fitness. Therefore, behavioural adaptations have evolved to avoid parasites or, when an individual is already in contact with a parasite, prevent or minimize infections. Such anti‐parasite behaviours can be very effective, but can also be costly for the host. Specifically, ectoparasites can elicit strong host anti‐parasite behaviours and interactions between fleas (Siphonaptera) and their hosts are one of the best studied. In altricial bird species, nest fleas can negatively affect both parent and offspring fitness components. However, knowledge on the effects of fleas on precocial bird species is scarce. Research on geese in the Canadian Arctic indicated that fleas have a negative impact on reproductive success. One possible hypothesis is that fleas may affect female incubation behaviour. Breeding females with many fleas in their nest may increase the frequency and/or duration of incubation breaks and could even totally desert their nest. The aim of our study was to 1) determine if a similar negative relationship existed between flea abundance and reproductive success in our study colony of Arctic breeding barnacle geese Branta leucopsis and 2) experimentally quantify if such effects could be explained by a negative effect of nest fleas on female behaviour. We compared host anti‐parasite and incubation behaviour between experimentally flea‐reduced and control nests using wildlife cameras and temperature loggers. We found that flea abundance was negatively associated with hatching success. We found little experimental support, however, for changes in behaviour of the breeding female as a possible mechanism to explain this effect.     

Arthropods (Pseudoscorpionidea,Acarina, Coleoptera,Siphonaptera) in nests of the bearded tit (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Panurus biarmicus</Emphasis>)

In the period 1993–2006, during investigation of reproduction biology of the bearded tit, 106 deserted nests of the species were collected in Slovakia, Austria and Italy and their arthropod fauna was analyzed. Occasionally introduced individuals of the pseudoscorpion Lamprochernes nodosus, a frequent species in Central Europe, were recorded in the nests. Altogether 984 individuals and 33 species of mesostigmatic mites (Acari) were found in 46.2% of the nests examined. The ectoparasite Ornithonyssus sylviarum was most abundant and frequent; it represented almost 68.3% of all individuals. Due to it, the parasitic mites predominated (69.4% of individuals). Other ecological groups were less represented: edaphic detriticols − 11.6%, coprophils − 10.7%, species of vegetation stratum − 8.2%, and nidicols − 0.2%. Beetles (40 species, 246 individuals) were present in 57 nests. Most of the beetles were strongly hygrophilous species inhabiting soil surface in the reed stands or other types of wetlands and the shore vegetation. Predators represented 59% of all individuals. They might find food in the nests, but none of the species had a close relationship to bird nests and represented 35% of species. All beetle species penetrated the nests occasionally, when ascending on the vegetation or searching cover during periods of increased water level. Occasionally, larvae and nymphs of the Dermacentor marginatus tick were found. They were most probably introduced by insectivores of the genus Neomys. Only one species of fleas, Ceratophyllus garei — a parasite of birds nesting in humid environment, was recorded in the nests.     

Characteristics of distribution of fleas from small mammals and birds in the southern taiga of Priirtysh'ie]

The analysis of the landscape distribution of fleas from small mammals and birds in the southern taiga of Priirtishje is given. According to their abundance and faunistic composition the population of fleas from small mammals can be arranged into four groups: fleas of forest floodland landscape, those of forest-meadow floodland landscape, fleas of settlements and bogs.