Effects of copper on species composition of periphyton in a Sierra Nevada, California, stream

SUMMARY. 1. Changes in species composition of the periphyton of an oligotrophic. Sierra Nevada stream continuously dosed for 1 year at three concentrations of copper (2.5, 5 and 10 μg 1^?1 Cu_T; approximately 12, 25 and 50 ng 1^?1 Cu²⁺) were determined. 2. The numerically most abundant taxa were Bacillariophyceae (Achnanthes minutissima, Cocconeis placentula, Cymbella microcephala, C. sinuata, Fragilaria conslruens, F. crotonensis. Navicula spp., Synedra acus and S. rumpens), and the Cyanophyta Lyngbya spp., a co-dominant during spring and summer. 3. Population densities of Lyngbya spp. were markedly reduced at all test concentrations of copper. Population densities of the principal Chlorophyta (Spirogyra spp. and Cladophora spp.) and the diatom Amphipleura pellucida were reduced at 5 μg 1^?1 CU_T. Of the twenty-two most abundant taxa, sixteen were reduced in abundance by continuous exposure to 10 μg 1^?1 Cu_T. 4. There was no commensurate reduction in standing crop (total number of individuals of all taxa). Achnanthes minutissima, a co-dominant in the control, was the primary replacement species. Other taxa that were more abundant at 5 μg1^?1 Cu_T than in the control were Ceratoneis arcus, Cocconeis placentula, Navicula spp. and Synedra rumpens. Only A. minutissima and Calothrix spp. were more abundant at 10 μg 1^?1 than in the control. 5. Three resemblance measures (Canberra metric, Bray-Curtis and Dice) and diversity (Brillouin's) were evaluated for detecting differences in species composition among experimental stream sections. The Canberra metric, an index sensitive to proportional rather than absolute differences, was the most informative of these indices.     

Effects of copper on species composition of benthic insects in a Sierra Nevada, California, stream

SUMMARY. 1. Effects of copper on species composition and production of benthic insects in an oligotrophic stream dosed at low concentrations (2.5-15 μg 1^-1 Cu_r; approximately 12-75 ng 1^-1 Cu²⁺) were determined. Dosing was initially in autumn-early winter when peak densities of many species occur. It was resumed the following summer near the time of egg hatch of most species and continued through the remaining aquatic stages of univoltine and multivoltine taxa.     

Effects of sediment loads on the fish and invertebrates of a Sierra Nevada river, California

This study examined the effects of sedimentloadings from an abandoned hydraulic miningsite on potential trout spawning gravels, largeaquatic macroinvertebrates, and fish growth,survival and reproduction in the South YubaRiver (Nevada County) California. Effects ofsediment loadings, which are transported to theSouth Yuba River via Humbug Creek, wereinvestigated by comparing data from sites onthe South Yuba River upstream and downstream ofHumbug Creek. The study did not find anydeleterious effects of sediment loadings onfish survival and reproduction (based onsnorkel survey data), or large aquaticmacroinvertebrate populations. In addition,the lack of a significant difference in thepercentage of 0.30 to 3.35 mm material insubstrate samples suggests that sediment loadsare not affecting trout spawning gravels. Incontrast, Sacramento pikeminnow(Ptychocheilus grandis) growth appears to beaffected by both water temperatures andsediment loadings. Downstream of Humbug Creek,growth during the first year was significantlyfaster, based on calculated standard lengths atthe age 1 annulus, but condition factor wassignificantly lower than above Humbug Creek.     

Effects of an experimental acid pulse on invertebrates in a high altitude Sierra Nevada stream

The effects of pulsed acidification on invertebrate densities and drift, and water chemistry, in a high altitude Sierra Nevada stream were measured using artificial stream channels. Water was diverted from the Marble Fork of the Kaweah River, California, U.S.A., through twelve replicate channels; however, low flow in the summer of 1985 eliminated all but four of these channels. Channels were stocked with natural substrates and organisms from the Marble Fork of the Kaweah River. After a three week acclimation period, we simulated a low pH rain event by adding acid (H₂SO₄ and HNO₃) to two of the channels, reducing pH to 5.0 for 6 hours. The other two channels acted as controls (pH 6.4). During acid additions, Baetis spp. drift in acidified channels was ca. 7 times higher than in control channels (F = 39.02, p < 0.025; data fourth root transformed, ANOVA), and the percentage of drifting baetids that was dead was significantly higher in acidified than control channels (46% vs. 0%, F = 29.86, p < 0.05; arcsine square root transformed data, ANOVA). Other taxa showed no significant drift responses, and benthic densities of all taxa showed no effects two days after acidification, probably owing to rapid recolonization by invertebrate drift in influent waters. Stream chemistry data are presented; heavy metal concentrations did not significantly increase in the 2 m stream channels.     

Fluxes and transformations of nitrogen in a high-elevation catchment,Sierra Nevada

The fluxes and transformations of nitrogen (N) were investigated from 1985 through 1987 at the Emerald Lake watershed (ELW), a 120 ha high-elevation catchment located in the southern Sierra Nevada, California, USA. Up to 90% of annual wet deposition of N was stored in the seasonal snowpack; NO ₃ ^– and NH ₄ ⁺ were released from storage in the form of an ionic pulse, where the first fraction of meltwater draining from the snowpack had concentrations of NO ₃ ^– and NH ₄ ⁺ as high as 28 eq L^–1 compared to bulk concentrations of <5 eq L^–1 in the snowpack. The soil reservoir of organic N (81 keq ha^–1) was about ten times the N storage in litter and biomass (12 keq ha^–1). Assimilation of N by vegetation was balanced by the release of N from soil mineralization, nitrification, and litter decay. Mineralization and nitrification processes produced 1.1 keq ha^–1 yr^–1 of inorganic N, about 3 1/2 times the loading of N from wet and dry deposition. Less than 1% of the NH ₄ ⁺ in wet and dry deposition was exported from the basin as NH ₄ ⁺ . Biological assimilation was primarily responsible for retention of NH ₄ ⁺ in the basin, releasing one mode of H⁺ for every mole of NH ₄ ⁺ retained and neutralizing about 25% of the annual acid neutralizing capacity produced by mineral weathering in the basin. Nitrate concentrations in stream waters reached an annual peak during the first part of snowmelt runoff, with maximum concentrations in stream water of 20 eq L^–1, more than 4 times the volume-weighted mean annual concentrations of NO ₃ ^– in wet deposition. This annual peak in stream water NO ₃ ^– was consistent with the release of NO ₃ ^– from the snowpack in the form of an ionic pulse; however soil processes occurring underneath the winter snowpack were another potential source of this NO ₃ ^– . Concentrations of stream water NO ₃ ^– during the summer growing season were always near or below detection limits (0.5 eq L^–1).     

Trophic cascading effects of predatory fish on leaf litter processing in a Japanese stream

A manipulative field experiment to test for trophic cascading effects of predatory fish on detritus processing by benthic invertebrates was performed in stream channels running through a wetland forest in northern Japan. To control for fish effects on benthic invertebrates, two simple treatments (fish-present and fish-absent) were established for 4 weeks, with two common predatory fish, rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) and freshwater sculpin (Cottus nozawae), being introduced into and excluded from stream cages. At the end of experiment, the biomass of the dominant detritivore, an amphipod (Jesogammarus jezoensis), was significantly less in the fish-present treatment (0.56 g m^–2 in dry mass on average) than that in the fish-absent treatment (1.32 g m^–2), there being no significant treatment effect evident for the second-dominant detritivore, coleopteran larvae (Optioservus kubotai). The loss of oak leaves (Quercus crispla) from litter bags in the fish-present treatment (0.31 g week^–1 in dry mass on average) was significantly less than in the fish-absent treatment (0.54 g week^–1). Predator-induced lower biomass and likely lowered foraging activities of the J. jezoensis were responsible for the suppression of litter processing efficiency. In contrast, the standing crop of fine particulate organic matter did not differ significantly between the treatments. The experimental results revealed that the predatory fish had an indirect but significant effect on leaf litter processing in the stream.     

Differences in processing dynamics of fresh and dried leaf litter in a stream ecosystem

SUMMARY. 1. Although the bulk of litter input to stream ecosystems is in the form of fresh leaves, current understanding of organic matter processing is largely founded on experimental studies made with pre-dried leaves. This paradox points to the critical need for evaluating to what extent those experiments with dried leaves reflect natural litter decomposition.
2. The mass loss rates, patterns of mass loss, and chemical changes during processing of fresh leaf litter were compared with air-dried leaf litter in a stream ecosystem.
3. Although overall mass loss rates were similar between treatments ( k = 0.0213 day⁻¹ and 0.0206 day⁻¹), fresh leaves lost mass at a constant rate, whereas the decay of dried leaves proceeded in two distinct phases. Soluble organic carbon, phosphorus, and potassium were rapidly leached from dried litter, but were largely retained in fresh material for more than a week. Kinetics of concentrations of cellulose and changes in amounts of lignin remaining per leaf pack revealed further differences in decomposition dynamics between treatments, apparently related, either directly or indirectly, to differences in leaching behaviour.
4. Dynamics of nitrogen and protein contents were similar between treatments, indicating that microbial colonization was not greatly delayed on fresh leaves.
5. It is concluded that the retention of labile carbon and nutrients in fresh leaf litter facilitates their utilization by leaf-associated micro-organisms and invertebrates, resulting in an increased importance of biotic processes relative to physical processes such as leaching.
6. At the ecosystem level, retention of carbon and nutrients in streams would be increased, allowing greater overall productivity. Conversely, the availability of labile organic carbon would be reduced in compartments such as the epilithon, fine sediments, and the water column.     

Effects of single and repeated experimental acid pulses on invertebrates in a high altitude Sierra Nevada stream

1. We examined responses of aquatic macroinvertebrates to pulsed acidification experiments in twelve streamside channels located in the Sierra Nevada, California. Experiment 1 consisted of a single 8 h acid addition, and Experiment 2 consisted of two 8 h acid additions administered 2 weeks apart. Replicated treatments (four reps/ treatment) consisted of a control (pH 6.5–6.7) and pH levels of 5.1–5.2 and 4.4–4.6. Invertebrate drift was monitored continuously and benthic densities were determined before and after acid addition. 2. Drift responses to pH reduction were: (i) increased drift during acidification in pH 5.2 and pH 4.6 treatment channels, often with depressed post-acidification drift in treatment channels relative to controls (exhibited by Baetis only). Depressed post-acidification drift in treatment channels appeared to be due to low benthic densities because a positive relationship between benthic and drift densities was noted for most common taxa; (ii) increased drift rates during acidification only at pH 4.6 (Epeorus, Drunella, Paraleptophlebia, Zapada, and Simulium); (iii) decreased drift at pH 5.2 and/or pH 4.6 relative to control channels (Rhyacaphila and chironomid larvae); (iv) no significant response to acidification (Ameletus, Amiocentrus, Dixa and Hydroporus). 3. A high proportion (45–100%) of acid-induced drift in Baetis, Epeorus, and chironomid larvae could be attributed to dead, drifting individuals. 4. Except for chironomids, most common invertebrates (i.e. Baetis and Paraleptophlebia) showed reduced benthic densities in treatment relative to control channels after acidification. 5. For sensitive taxa, drift was enhanced and benthic densities reduced by single (Experiment 1) and initial [Experiment 2(a)] acid pulses. Drift responses to a second acid pulse [Experiment 2(b)] were not as pronounced as those to the single or initial acid pulses [Experiments 1 and 2(a)], and the second acid pulse had no additional effect on benthic density.     

Population Dynamics of Spotted Owls in the Sierra Nevada,California

ABSTRACT The California spotted owl (Strix occidentalis occidentalis) is the only spotted owl subspecies not listed as threatened or endangered under the United States Endangered Species Act despite petitions to list it as threatened. We conducted a meta-analysis of population data for 4 populations in the southem Cascades and Sierra Nevada, California, USA, from 1990 to 2005 to assist a listing evaluation by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service. Our study areas (from N to S) were on the Lassen National Forest (LAS), Eldorado National Forest (ELD), Sierra National Forest (SIE), and Sequoia and Kings Canyon National Parks (SKC). These study areas represented a broad spectrum of habitat and management conditions in these mountain ranges. We estimated apparent survival probability, reproductive output, and rate of population change for spotted owls on individual study areas and for all study areas combined (meta-analysis) using model selection or model-averaging based on maximum-likelihood estimation. We followed a formal protocol to conduct this analysis that was similar to other spotted owl meta-analyses. Consistency of field and analytical methods among our studies reduced confounding methodological effects when evaluating results. We used 991 marked spotted owls in the analysis of apparent survival. Apparent survival probability was higher for adult than for subadult owls. There was little difference in apparent survival between male and female owls. Model-averaged mean estimates of apparent survival probability of adult owls varied from 0.811 ± 0.021 for females at LAS to 0.890 ± 0.016 for males at SKC. Apparent survival increased over time for owls of all age classes at LAS and SIE, for adults at ELD, and for second-year subadults and adults at SKC. The meta-analysis of apparent survival, which included only adult owls, confirmed an increasing trend in survival over time. Survival rates were higher for owls on SKC than on the other study areas. We analyzed data from 1,865 observations of reproductive outcomes for female spotted owls. The proportion of subadult females among all territorial females of known age ranged from 0.00 to 0.25 among study areas and years. The proportion of subadults among female spotted owls was negatively related to reproductive output (no. of young fledged/territorial F owl) for ELD and SIE. Eldorado study area and LAS showed an alternate-year trend in reproductive output, with higher output in even-numbered years. Mean annual reproductive output was 0.988 ± 0.154 for ELD, 0.624 ± 0.140 for LAS, 0.478 ± 0.106 for SIE, and 0.555 ± 0.110 for SKC. Eldorado Study Area exhibited a declining trend and the greatest variation in reproductive output over time, whereas SIE and SKC, which had the lowest reproductive output, had the lowest temporal variation. Meta-analysis confirmed that reproductive output varied among study areas. Reproductive output was highest for adults, followed by second-year subadults, and then by first-year subadults. We used 842 marked subadult and adult owls to estimate population rate of change. Modeling indicated that Λ _t (Λ _t is the finite rate of population change estimated using the reparameterized Jolly–Seber estimator [Pradel 1996]) was either stationary (LAS and SIE) or increasing after an initial decrease (ELD and SKC). Mean estimated Λ _t for the 4 study areas was 1.007 (95% CI = 0.952–1.066) for ELD; 0.973 (95% CI = 0.946–1.001) for LAS; 0.992 (95% CI = 0.966–1.018) for SIE; and 1.006 (95% CI = 0.947–1.068) for SKC. The best meta-analysis model of population trend indicated that Λ varied across time but was similar in trend among the study areas. Our estimates of realized population change (Δ _t ; Franklin et al. 2004), which we estimated as the product 1 λ₃, were based on estimates of Λ _t from individual study areas and did not require estimating annual population size for each study area. Trends represented the proportion of the population size in the first year that remained in each subsequent year. Similar to λ₄ on which they were based, these λ_k-1 showed evidence of decline over the study period for LAS and SIE. The best model indicated recruitment of male and female adult and subadults varied from 0.10 to 0.31 new territorial individuals at time t/number of territorial individuals at time t–1 and similarly among areas. We also conducted a population viability analysis (PVA) based on results of our meta-analysis. This PVA was of limited utility for ELD and SKC study areas because 95% confidence intervals on the probability of decline or increase spanned the interval [0, 1] within 5–10 years. When we restricted inferences to 7 years, estimated probability of a >10% decline for SIE was 0.41 (95% CI = 0.09–0.78); for LAS the probability was 0.64 (95% CI = 0.27–0.94). In contrast, estimated probability of a >10% increase in 7 years for SIE was 0.23 (95% CI = 0.01–0.55) and for LAS was 0.10 (95% CI = 0.00–0.34). For comparisons, we simulated a PVA for a hypothetical population with mean Λ = 1.0 and the same temporal variation as observed in our owl populations. Our PVA suggested that both the SIE and LAS populations had higher probabilities of declining in a 7-year period than increasing but that it would be difficult to determine if a population was in a slight gradual decline. Our analysis and the repository of information on our 4 study populations provide a data-rich template for managers to monitor impacts of future management actions on the owl. Specifically, our data can be used to evaluate the effect of management strategies on spotted owls that are being implemented by the United States Forest Service to reduce the risk of wildfire in the Sierra Nevada ecosystem. Our information also provides baseline information for evaluating the status of the owl for potential listing as a threatened species by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service. RESUMEN El búho californiano manchado (Strix occidentalis occidentalis) es la única subespecie de búhos manchados que no está listada como amenazada o en peligro de extinción en el Acta de E.E.U.U. para las Especies en Peligro de Extinción a pesar de las peticiones para que sea incluida en la lista como una especie amenazada. Nosotros realizamos un meta-análisis de los datos de la población de 4 poblaciones del sur de Cascades y de la Sierra Nevada, California desde 1990 hasta 2005 como ayuda a una evaluación de listado hecha por el U.S Fish and Wildlife Service. Nuestras áreas de estudio (de norte a sur) estuvieron localizadas en el Bosque Nacional Lassen (LAS), en el Bosque Nacional Eldorado (ELD), en el Bosque Nacional Sierra (SIE) y en los Parques Nacionales Sequoia y Kings Canyon (SKC). Estas áreas de estudio representaron un amplio espectro del hábitat y de las condiciones de manejo en estas cadenas de montañas. Nosotros calculamos la probabilidad de supervivencia aparente, el volumen de reproducción y el cambio en la tasa de población de los búhos manchados en áreas de estudio individuales y para todas las áreas de estudio combinadas (meta-análisis) utilizando selección de modelos o promediando modelos basados en la estimación de máxima probabilidad. Seguimos un protocolo formal para realizar este análisis que fuera similar a otros meta-análisis con búhos manchados. La consistencia del campo y los métodos analíiticos en nuestros estudios redujeron la confusión de efectos metodológicos al evaluar los resultados. Utilizamos 991 búhos manchados marcados en el análisis de supervivencia aparente. La probabilidad de supervivencia aparente fue más alta para búhos adultos que para subadultos. Hubo poca diferencia en la supervivencia aparente entre hembras y machos. Para los modelos promediados, los cálculos de la media de la probabilidad de supervivencia aparente para búhos adultos tuvo una variación de 0.811 ± 0.021 para hembras en LAS a 0.890 ± 0.016 para machos en SKA. La supervivencia aparente aumentó con el tiempo para los búhos de todos los grupos de edad en LAS y SIE, para adultos en ELD, y para subadultos del segundo año y para adultos en SKC. El meta-análisis de supervivencia aparente, que incluyó únicamente a búhos adultos, confirmó una tendencia al aumento en la supervivencia con el tiempo. Las tasas de supervivencia fueron más altas para los búhos en SKC que en las otras áreas de estudio. Analizamos información de 1.865 observaciones de resultados de reproducciones para búhos manchados hembra. La proporción de hembras subadultas entre todas las hembras territoriales de edad conocida fluctuó de 0.00 a 0.25 a través de las áreas de estudio y de los años. La proporción de subadultos entre los búhos manchados hembra estuvo relacionada negativamente con el volumen de reproducción (número de pichones emplumados por búho hembra territorial) para ELD y SIE. ELD y LAS mostraron una tendencia anual alternada en el volumen de reproducción, con un volumen mayor en los años pares. La media del volumen de reproducción anual fue 0.988 ± 0.154 para ELD, 0.624 ± 0.140 para LAS, 0.478 ± 0.106 para SIE y 0.555 ± 0.154 para SKC. ELD exhibió una tendencia a disminuir y la variación más alta en el volumen de reproducción a través del tiempo; mientras que SIE y SKC, que tuvieron el más bajo volumen de reproducción, tuvieron la menor variación temporal. El meta-análisis confirmó que el volumen de reproducción varió entre las áreas de estudio. El volumen de reproducción fue más alto para adultos, seguido por subadultos del segundo año, y luego por subadultos del primer año. Nosotros utilizamos 842 búhos marcados, adultos y subadultos, para calcular el índice de cambio de la población. La selección de modelos indicó que Λ _t era, o relativamente fija (LAS y SIE) o aumentaba después de una disminución inicial (ELD y SKC). La media calculada Λ _t para las cuatro áreas de estudio fue: 1.007 (95% CI = 0.952–1.066) para ELD; 0.973 (95% CI = 0.946–1.001) para LAS; 0.992 (95% CI = 0.966–1.018) para SIE; y 1.006 (95% CI = 0.947–1.068) para SKC. El mejor modelo de meta-análisis de la tendencia de población indicó que Λ variaba con el tiempo pero que era una tendencia similar entre las áreas de estudio. Nuestros cálculos sobre el cambio de población realizado (Δ _t ) se basaron en los cálculos de Λ _t de las áreas de estudio individuales y no requirieron calcular el tamaño de la población anual para cada área de estudio. Las tendencias representaron la proporción del tamaño de la población en el primer año que permaneció en cada año subsiguiente. De manera similar a λ_t, en la que se basaron, éstas Δ_t mostraron evidencia de disminución durante el período de estudio para LAS y SIE. El mejor modelo de reclutamiento indicado, el reclutamiento de búhos machos y hembras, adultos y subadultos, varió de 0.10 a 0.31 individuos territoriales nuevos al tiempo t por el número de individuos territoriales al tiempo t–1 y de manera similar entre las otras áreas. También realizamos un análisis de viabilidad de población (PVA) basado en los resultados de nuestro meta-análisis. Este análisis PVA fue de limitada utilidad para las áreas de estudio ELD y SKC porque el 95% de intervalos de confiabilidad en la probabilidad de disminución o aumento extendió el intervalo [0, 1] de 5–10 años. Cuando restringimos las inferencias a 7 años, la probabilidad estimada de a >10% de disminución para SIE fue 0.41 (95% CI = 0.09–0.78); para LAS la probabilidad fue 0.64 (95% CI = 0.27–0.94). En contraste, la probabilidad estimada de un >10% de aumento en 7 años para SIE fue 0.23 (95% CI = 0.01–0.55) y para LAS fue 0.10 (95% CI = 0.00–0.34). Para comparar, simulamos un PVA para una población hipotética con una media Λ = 1.0, y con la misma variación temporal observada en nuestras poblaciones de búhos. Nuestro PVA sugirió que ambas poblaciones SIE y LAS tenían, en un período de 7 años, mayores probabilidades de disminución que de aumento, pero que sería muy difícil determinar si alguna de las poblaciones estaba en una ligera disminución gradual. El depósito de información de nuestras 4 áreas de estudio provee una plantilla rica en información para que los administradores monitoreen los impactos de acciones futuras en el manejo de los búhos (por ejemplo, nuevas estrategias de manejo del Plan de Sierra Nevada Forest). También provee evidencia importante para evaluar el estatus del búho para su potencial inclusión en el listado de especies amenazadas. RÉSUMÉ Le hibou tacheté californien (Strix occidentalis occidentalis) est la seule sous-espèce de hibou tacheté ne figurant pas sur la liste des animaux menacés ou vulnérables sous la Loi des Espèces en Danger des Etats-Unis malgré des pétitions pour l'inscrire sur cette liste en tant que sous-espèce menacée. Nous avons effectué une méta-analyse des données de population pour 4 populations dans le sud des Cascades et dans la Sierra Nevada, en Californie de 1990 à 2005 pour aider une évaluation de leur statut établie par les Services des Eaux et Forêts des Etats-Unis. Nos aires d'étude (du nord au sud) étaient dans la forêt nationale Lassen (LAS), la forêt nationale Eldorado (ELD), la forêt nationale Sierra (SIE), et les parcs nationaux Sequoia et Kings Canyon (SKC). Ces aires d'étude représentaient un large échantillon des conditions de l'habitat et de la gestion dans ces chaînes de montagnes. Nous avons estimé la probabilité de survie apparente, le succès de reproduction, et le taux de changement de la population pour les hiboux tachetés dans chaque aire d'étude individuelle et dans toutes les aires réunies (méta–analyse) en utilisant la sélection de modèles ou le calcul de la moyenne des modèles basé sur une estimation du maximum de vraisemblance. Pour effectuer cette analyse nous avons suivi un protocole rigoureux similaire à d'autres méta-analyses de hiboux tachetés. La cohérence des observations de terrain et des méthodes analytiques entre ces études a réduit les effets méthodologiques confondants lors des évaluations des résultats. Nous avons utilisé 991 hiboux tachetés marqués dans l'analyse de survie apparente. La probabilité de survie apparente a été plus élevée pour les hiboux adultes que pour les sous-adultes. Il y a eu peu de différence pour ce qui est de la survie apparente entre les hiboux mâles et femelles. La moyenne des estimations de la probabilité de survie apparente des hiboux adultes basée sur la moyenne des modèles a varié entre 0,811 ± 0,021 pour les hiboux femelles à LAS et 0,890 ± 0,016 pour les hiboux mâles à SKC. La survie apparente a augmenté avec le temps pour les hiboux de toutes les classes d'âge à LAS et SIE, pour les adultes à ELD, et pour les sous-adultes de deux ans et les adultes à SKC. La méta-analyse de survie apparente, qui comprenait seulement des hiboux adultes, a confirmé une tendance croissante de survie avec le temps. Les taux de survie étaient plus élevés pour les hiboux de SKC que pour ceux des autres aires d'étude. Nous avons analysé les données obtenues à partir de 1 865 observations de succès de reproduction de hiboux tachetées femelles. La proportion des hiboux femelles sous-adultes parmi toutes les femelles territoriales d'àge connu a varié de 0,00 à 0,25 selon les aires et les années d'étude. La proportion des sousadultes parmi les hiboux tachetés femelles a été négativement corrélée avec le succès de reproduction (nombre de jeunes hiboux par femelle territoriale) pour ELD et SIE. La forêt nationale Eldorado et la forêt nationale Lassen ont montré une tendance à alterner selon un cycle biennal pour ce qui est du succès de reproduction, avec un taux plus élevé pendant les années paires. La moyenne du succès de reproduction annuel était de 0,988 ± 0,154 pour ELD, de 0,624 ± 0,140 pour LAS, de 0,478 ± 0,106 pour SIE, et de 0,555 ± 0,110 pour SKD. La forêt nationale Eldorado a montré une tendance décroissante ainsi que la plus grande variation dans le succès de reproduction avec le temps, alors que SIE et SKC, qui ont eu le succès de reproduction le plus bas, ont connu la variation temporelle la plus basse. La méta-analyse a confirmé que le succès de reproduction variait selon les aires d'étude. Le succès de reproduction a été le plus élevé pour les adultes, puis pour les sous-adultes de deux ans, et ensuite pour les sous-adultes d'un an. Nous avons utilisé 842 hiboux marqués, adultes et sous-adultes, pour estimer le taux de changement de la population. La modélisation a indiqué que Λ _t était soit stationnaire (LAS et SIE), soit croissant après une baisse initiale (ELD et SKC). La moyenne estimée Λ _t pour les 4 aires d'étude était: 1,007 (95% IC = 0,952–1,066) pour ELD; 0,973 (95% IC = 0,946–1,001) pour LAS; 0,992 (95% IC = 0,966–1,018) pour SIE; et 1,006 (95% IC = 0,947–1,068) pour SKC. Le meilleur modèle de méta-analyse pour la tendance de la population a indiqué que Λ variait selon le temps mais suivait la même tendance selon les aires d'étude. Nos estimations du changement de population réalisé (Δ _t ) étaient fondées sur les estimations de Λ _t des aires d'étude individuelles et n'ont pas nécessité d'estimation de la taille annuelle de la population pour chaque aire d'étude. Les tendances représentaient la proportion de la taille de la population pendant la première année qui s'est maintenue chaque année subséquente. De même que λ_t sur lesquels ils étaient fondés, ces δ_t ont apporté des preuves de déclin pendant la période d'étude pour LAS et SIE. Le meilleur modèle a indiqué que le recrutement des hiboux adultes et sous-adultes mâles et femelles variait de 0,10 à 0,31 nouveaux individus territoriaux à un temps t pour un nombre d'individus territoriaux à un temps t-1 et qu'il en était de même dans chaque aire. Nous avons également procédé à une analyse de viabilité de la population (AVP) fondée sur les résultats de notre méta-analyse. Cette AVP a été d'une utilité limitée pour les aires d'étude ELD et SKC parce que les intervalles de confiance de 95% sur la probabilité du déclin ou de la croissance couvraient l'intervalle [0, 1] sur une période de 5 à 10 ans. Lorsque nous avons réduit les inférences à 7 ans, la probabilité estimée d'un déclin >10% pour SIE était de 0,41 (95% IC = 0,09–0,78); pour LAS la probabilité était de 0,64 (95% IC = 0,27–0,94). Al'opposé, la probabilité estimée d'une croissance >10% en 7 ans pour SIE était de 0,23 (95% IC = 0,01–0,55) et pour LAS elle était de 0,10 (95% IC = 0,00–0,34). Afin de comparer, nous avons simulé une AVP pour une population hypothétique ayant une moyenne Λ = 1,0 et la même variation temporelle que celle observée dans nos populations de hiboux. Notre AVP a suggéré que les populations de SIE et de LAS avaient de plus grandes probabilités de déclin que de croissance sur une période de 7 ans, mais qu'il serait difficile de déterminer si une population présentait un léger déclin graduel. La collecte des informations pour nos 4 aires d'étude foumit aux personnes chargées de la gestion un modèle riche de données permettant de suivre l'impact sur les hiboux des actions de gestion à l'avenir (par exemple, les nouvelles stratégies de gestion du Plan pour la Forêt de Sierra Nevada). Cette collecte foumit également des preuves importantes afin d'évaluer le statut du hibou pour une classification potentielle sur la liste des espèces menacées.     

Fire Severity in Conifer Forests of the Sierra Nevada, California

Natural disturbances are an important source of environmental heterogeneity that have been linked to species diversity in ecosystems. However, spatial and temporal patterns of disturbances are often evaluated separately. Consequently, rates and scales of existing disturbance processes and their effects on biodiversity are often uncertain. We have studied both spatial and temporal patterns of contemporary fires in the Sierra Nevada Mountains, California, USA. Patterns of fire severity were analyzed for conifer forests in the three largest fires since 1999. These fires account for most cumulative area that has burned in recent years. They burned relatively remote areas where there was little timber management. To better characterize high-severity fire, we analyzed its effect on the survival of pines. We evaluated temporal patterns of fire since 1950 in the larger landscapes in which the three fires occurred. Finally, we evaluated the utility of a metric for the effects of fire suppression. Known as Condition Class it is now being used throughout the United States to predict where fire will be uncharacteristically severe. Contrary to the assumptions of fire management, we found that high-severity fire was uncommon. Moreover, pines were remarkably tolerant of it. The wildfires helped to restore landscape structure and heterogeneity, as well as producing fire effects associated with natural diversity. However, even with large recent fires, rates of burning are relatively low due to modern fire management. Condition Class was not able to predict patterns of high-severity fire. Our findings underscore the need to conduct more comprehensive assessments of existing disturbance regimes and to determine whether natural disturbances are occurring at rates and scales compatible with the maintenance of biodiversity.     

Microcrustacean communities of high-elevation lakes in the Sierra Nevada, California

Seventy-five high-elevation lakes in the Sierra Nevada mountainsof California were sampled for microcrustacean species and majorion compositions. Cluster analysis was used to delineate fiverecurrent community types. Distributions of both individualspecies and of community types were related to chemical, morphometric,topographic and geologic variables, as well as fish presenceor absence, by stepwise logistic multiple regression. Fish distributionwas an important predictor of the distributions of all individualspecies for which significant regression models could be built;other common predictors included nitrate concentration, elevation,basin area and lake depth. One common community type (n = 22)consisted of Dapbnia rosea, Diaptomus signicauda, Bosmina longirostrisand Holopedium gibberum. A second, more species-rich, community(n = 27) included many of these same species, in addition toCyclopsvemalis, Diaphanasoma brachyurum, Polyphemus pediculis and/orCeriodaphnia affinis. Two further communities (n = 9 and n =6 respectively) contained Daphnia middendorffiana with eitherDiaptomus shoshone or Diaptomus eiseni. A fifth community type(n = 11) either lacked microcrustaceans or contained only Chydorusand/or Alona spp. The distributions of the first four of thesecommunity types could be well predicted on the basis of fishpresence and elevation (community types I and II), or fish absenceand lake depth (community types III and IV). The distributionof the fifth community type was independent of fish presenceor absence; phosphate concentration was the only significantpredictor of this community. ¹Present address: New York City Department of EnvironmentalProtection, PO Box 184, Valhalla, NY 10595, USA     

Air pollution and watershed research in the central Sierra Nevada of California: nitrogen and ozone

Maintaining healthy forests is the major objective for the Forest Service scientists and managers working for the U.S. Department of Agriculture. Air pollution, specifically ozone (O3) and nitrogenous (N) air pollutants, may severely affect the health of forest ecosystems in the western U.S. Thus, the monitoring of air pollution concentration and deposition levels, as well as studies focused on understanding effects mechanisms, are essential for evaluation of risks associated with their presence. Such information is essential for development of proper management strategies for maintaining clean air, clean water, and healthy ecosystems on land managed by the Forest Service. We report on two years of research in the central Sierra Nevada of California, a semi-arid forest at elevations of 1100-2700 m. Information on O3 and N air pollutants is obtained from a network of 18 passive samplers. We relate the atmospheric N concentration to N concentrations in streams, shallow soil water, and bulk deposition collectors within the Kings River Experimental Watershed. This watershed also contains an intensive site that is part of a recent Forest Service effort to calculate critical loads for N, sulfur, and acidity to forest ecosystems. The passive sampler design allows for extensive spatial measurements while the watershed experiment provides intensive spatial data for future analysis of ecosystem processes.     

Distribution of California Black Rails in the Sierra Nevada foothills

ABSTRACT California Black Rails (Laterallus jamaicensis coturniculus) have a disjunct and poorly understood distribution. After a new population was discovered in Yuba County in 1994, we conducted call playback surveys from 1994 to 2006 in the Sierra foothills and Sacramento Valley region to determine the distribution and residency of Black Rails, estimate densities, and obtain estimates of site occupancy and detection probability. We found Black Rails in 164 small, widely scattered marshes distributed along the lower western slopes of the Sierra Nevada foothills from just northeast of Chico (Butte County) to Rocklin (Placer County). Marshes were surrounded by unsuitable habitat, creating a patchy or metapopulation structure. We observed Black Rails nesting and found that they are year‐round residents. Assuming perfect detectability, we estimated a mean density of 1.78 rails/ha. Assuming a detection probability of 0.5, this estimate increases to a mean density of 3.55 rails/ha. The probability of detecting occupancy with a single call playback survey at a marsh was high (= 0.84), and the estimated proportion of marshes occupied (across all years) was 0.58. Irrigation ditches were the primary water source for 75% of the marshes with Black Rails. Our results indicate that Black Rails are more widespread in the Sierra foothills than previously known, and the foothills distribution appears to be discontinuous with populations in the San Francisco Bay‐Delta Estuary. Occupancy surveys may be an improved method for monitoring population trends of this secretive marsh bird where habitat patches are highly fragmented.     

Decomposition of deciduous leaf litter in a woodland stream

Microorganisms associated with decomposing deciduous leaf litter in a woodland stream were examined by scanning electron microscopy. The use of a critical point drying method allowed the preservation of a wide variety of microorganisms as well as the decomposing litter with a minimum of distortion. The micrographs provide evidence that the aquatic hyphomycetes are the major fungal flora present during decomposition. Two distinct groups of these fungi were found during the seasonal cycle with one group occurring only in the summer while the other occurred throughout the rest of the year. The presence of all developmental stages of these organisms in the environment is considered further evidence of their active role in the decomposition of litter.     

Decomposition of deciduous leaf litter in a woodland stream

Microorganisms associated with decomposing deciduous leaf litter in a woodland stream were examined by scanning electron microscopy. The use of a critical point drying method allowed the preservation of a wide variety of microorganisms as well as the decomposing litter with a minimum of distortion. The micrographs provide evidence that the aquatic hyphomycetes are the major fungal flora present during decomposition. Two distinct groups of these fungi were found during the seasonal cycle with one group occurring only in the summer while the other occurred throughout the rest of the year. The presence of all developmental stages of these organisms in the environment is considered further evidence of their active role in the decomposition of litter.     

Distribution of edaphic-endemic butterflies in the Sierra Nevada of California

Five edaphically-restricted or -endemic butterflies, mostly associated with serpentine, are shown to be distributed in the western foothills of the Sierra Nevada in addition to their previously documented areas of occupancy in the California North Coast Ranges. Two species are absolutely limited by the edaphic restriction of their host plants, while the other three seemingly are not. The controversies concerning the origins of serpentine endemism in plants apply to butterflies as well. Long-term relictualism can presumably apply only at the metapopulation level, not the local population level, due to the frequency of fire in these habitats. Development and habitat-conversion trends pose a high risk to the long-term survival of these species in the Sierra Nevada.     

Effects of litter size and quality on processing by decomposers in a tropical savannah stream

Litter fragment size and quality can have profound effects on ecosystem functioning and global biogeochemical cycling due to differential utilization by decomposers. Here we study the influence of these factors on decomposers from two guilds found in a tropical savannah stream: invertebrate shredders of the genus Phylloicus and microorganisms. Containers (16 × 16 × 12 cm, ~ 3L) with either Phylloicus (cases removed; N = 16) or stream water containing microorganisms (N = 16) were supplied with litter from the species Inga laurina, Maprounea guianensis, and Richeria grandis, and cut into disks of 18.7, 13.2, and 8.1 mm in diameter (3 sizes × 3 species = 9 disks per container). Relative decomposition was greater for smaller leaf disks and disks of higher quality in microbial‐only cultures. Phylloicus preferentially harvested large fragments for case building, also preferring the leaves of M. guianensis and R. grandis, likely due increased robustness for case formation. Microbial decomposition resulted in ~20% litter mass loss compared to 30% in Phylloicus (of which 8% was used for case building and 24% for food). Thus, changes to input litter size, such as a decrease in leaf size after drought, may alter microbial decomposition and potentially affect shredder populations by limiting the availability of casing material.     

Invertebrate colonization and processing of maple leaf litter in a forested and an agricultural reach of a stream

Processing of maple leaf (Acer saccharum Marsh) packs, their colonization by invertebrates and nutrient dynamics in leaves were investigated in a forested reach and agricultural reach of Canagagigue Creek, Ontario. Shredders, Pycnopsyche, and collectors, Ephemerella subvaria, Stenonema vicarium and Baetis were significantly more numerous in packs at the forest site than in packs at the agricultural site, whereas filter feeders, especially blackflies, were significantly more numerous in packs at the agricultural site. Weight loss of litter packs was nearly equivalent at the two sites. However, there were major differences in the mechanism of processing between the sites. Physical abrasion and microbial activity governed weight loss of maple leaf packs at the agricultural site, whereas processing was governed mainly by microbial and invertebrate activity and, to a much lesser extent, by physical abrasion at the forest site. Both shredders and collector species played an important role in the processing of leaf material at the forest site. Greater uptake of N and P (P<0.05 in spring) and higher C concentrations were observed in leaf packs at the forest site than the agricultural site. Therefore, the results support the concept of retention of nutrients in forested areas and their export in deforested (agricultural) areas. Findings also indicated that the processing of leaf litter is not an efficient means of monitoring changes in stream ecosystems since leaf processing is affected by many factors, particularly physical abrasion.     

Micronutrient and phosphorus limitation of phytoplankton abundance in Gem Lake,Sierra Nevada,California

Nutrient addition experiments conducted during the ice-free seasons of 1983 and 1984 in Gem Lake, an alpine lake in the Sierra Nevada mountains of California, indicate that algal biomass is limited by phosphorus, in combination with iron or copper. Phosphorus additions were always required to stimulate growth, but did not do so when phosphorus was the only nutrient added. Simultaneous additions of phosphorus and iron resulted in increased levels of chlorophyll, particulate carbon, particulate nitrogen and particulate phosphorus. Simultaneous additions of phosphorus and copper resulted in increases in chlorophyll, particulate nitrogen and particulate phosphorus, not in particulate carbon. Neither iron nor copper by itself stimulated growth.Particulate N : P ratios from all seasons in Gem Lake suggest that simultaneous micronutrient and phosphorus limitation exists throughout the summer, when nutrient and biomass levels remain low; limitation by phosphorus alone may appear in the fall and spring, when biomass and major ion concentrations increase dramatically.     

Macro-Particle Charcoal C Content following Prescribed Burning in a Mixed-Conifer Forest,Sierra Nevada,California

Fire suppression and changing climate have resulted in increased large wildfire frequency and severity in the western United States, causing carbon cycle impacts. Forest thinning and prescribed burning reduce high-severity fire risk, but require removal of biomass and emissions of carbon from burning. During each fire a fraction of the burning vegetation and soil organic matter is converted into charcoal, a relatively stable carbon form. We sought to quantify the effects of pre-fire fuel load and type on charcoal carbon produced by biomass combusted in a prescribed burn under different thinning treatments and to identify more easily measured predictors of charcoal carbon mass in a historically frequent-fire mixed-conifer forest. We hypothesized that charcoal carbon produced from coarse woody debris (CWD) during prescribed burning would be greater than that produced from fine woody debris (FWD). We visually quantified post-treatment charcoal carbon content in the O-horizon and the A-horizon beneath CWD (> 30 cm diameter) and up to 60 cm from CWD that was present prior to treatment. We found no difference in the size of charcoal carbon pools from CWD (treatment means ranged from 0.3–2.0 g m^-2 of A-horizon and 0.0–1.7 g m^-2 of O-horizon charcoal) and FWD (treatment means ranged from 0.2–1.7 g m^-2 of A-horizon and 0.0–1.5 g m^-2 of O-horizon charcoal). We also compared treatments and found that the burn-only, understory-thin and burn, and overstory-thin and burn treatments had significantly more charcoal carbon than the control. Charcoal carbon represented 0.29% of total ecosystem carbon. We found that char mass on CWD was an important predictor of charcoal carbon mass, but only explained 18–35% of the variation. Our results help improve our understanding of the effects forest restoration treatments have on ecosystem carbon by providing additional information about charcoal carbon content.