Root cortical aerenchyma improves the drought tolerance of maize (Zea mays L.)

Root cortical aerenchyma (RCA) reduces root respiration in maize by converting living cortical tissue to air volume. We hypothesized that RCA increases drought tolerance by reducing root metabolic costs, permitting greater root growth and water acquisition from drying soil. To test this hypothesis, recombinant inbred lines with high and low RCA were observed under water stress in the field and in soil mesocosms in a greenhouse. In the field, lines with high RCA had 30% more shoot biomass at flowering compared with lines with low RCA under water stress. Root length density in deep soil was significantly greater in the high RCA lines compared with the low RCA lines. Mid‐day leaf relative water content in the high RCA lines was 10% greater than in the low RCA lines under water stress. The high RCA lines averaged eight times the yield of the low RCA lines under water stress. In mesocosms, high RCA lines had less seminal root respiration, deeper rooting, and greater shoot biomass compared with low RCA lines under water stress. These results support the hypothesis that RCA is beneficial for drought tolerance in maize by reducing the metabolic cost of soil exploration.     

玉米幼苗根际土壤微生物活性对芘污染的响应

用根际袋法土培试验研究了玉米幼苗根际与非根际土壤微生物量碳、微生物熵、代谢熵和土壤酶活性对不同芘污染水平(50、200、800mg·kg-1,记为T1、T2、T3)的响应差异。结果表明,较低浓度芘可适当的刺激玉米幼苗的生长,而较高浓度芘则抑制幼苗生长,其抑制作用随芘处理浓度的提高而增强;芘对玉米根系的影响要大于对茎叶的影响。玉米幼苗能够明显促进土壤中芘的去除。根际和非根际土壤中芘的去除率分别为56.67%-76.18%和32.64%-70.44%,根际土壤中芘的平均去除率比非根际土壤高16.06%。同处理中根际土壤芘含量显著低于非根际土壤,随着芘处理浓度的提高其差异更加显著。根际土壤微生物量碳、微生物熵、多酚氧化酶活性、脱氢酶活性和磷酸酶活性均高于非根际土壤,代谢熵低于非根际土壤,且其差异随芘处理浓度的提高而增大。在不同芘污染水平下,微生物量碳、微生物熵和脱氢酶活性根际和非根际土壤为T1T2T3,代谢熵为T3T2T1;多酚氧化酶活性根际土壤为T2T1T3,非根际土壤为T1T2T3;磷酸酶活性根际土壤为T3T1T2,非根际土壤为T1T2T3。土壤中残余芘含量与土壤微生物量碳、微生物熵、多酚氧化酶、脱氢酶和磷酸酶活性呈显著负相关,与代谢熵呈显著正相关。     

Environmental effects on the early stages of tassel morphogenesis in maize (Zea mays L.)

The effects of various environmental conditions on the initiation of tassel branches (NTB) and spikelet‐pairs (NSP) were examined in the stress‐sensitive maize inbred F53. Chilling induced the most important effect, with a dramatic decrease in both NTB and NSP, provided it was applied at the end of the vegetative phase and start of the floral transition phase. The primary cause of chilling‐induced abortion of the tassel branches could be oxidative stress in the leaves, since lowering light irradiance during chilling greatly reduced the effect of cold. The comparison of inbreds F53 and F2 revealed that both genotypes exhibited a similar period of cold sensitivity at the floral transition phase, although F2 was considered from field observations as a stress‐insensitive genotype (at least for tassel development). However, our results also showed a chilling acclimation response in inbred F2 but not in inbred F53. The similarities with the work by Lejeune & Bernier (1996 Plant, Cell and Environment 19, 217–224.) concerning the effect of chilling on ear initiation in the sensitive inbred, B22, are emphasized.     

Effect of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi on phytoextraction by corn (Zea mays) of lead-contaminated soil

The role of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) in lead (Pb) uptake by corn (Zea mays) grown in soil supplemented with Pb was examined. Plants were subjected to four Pb levels: 0 (control); 10 (low); 100 (medium); and 500 mg L(-1) (high). At each Pb level, plants were grown in soil without and with fungicide (benomyl) (20 mg kg(-1)) to suppress AMF activity. Benomyl significantly reduced AMF colonization at high. medium, and zero Pb exposures. Benomyl application resulted in significantly lower concentrations of phosphorus in leaves at low and medium Pb exposures. The benomyl-treated plants had higher Pb and manganese concentrations in leaves than plants not treated with benomyl. In addition, benomyl-treated plants had generally lower concentrations of zinc and copper in leaves than plants not treated with benomyl. These results suggest that the role of AMF in heavy metal uptake is metal specific. Based on this work, the use of benomyl on soils contaminated with Pb can be recommended in phytoextraction.     

Arbuscular mycorrhizal contribution to heavy metal uptake by maize (Zea mays L.) in pot culture with contaminated soil

In two pot-culture experiments with maize in a silty loam (P2 soil) contaminated by atmospheric deposition from a metal smelter, root colonization with indigenous or introduced arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi and their influence on plant metal uptake (Cd, Zn, Cu, Pb, Mn) were investigated. Soil was -irradiated for the nonmycorrhizal control. In experiment 1, nonirradiated soil provided the mycorrhizal treatment, whereas in experiment 2 the irradiated soil was inoculated with spores of a fungal culture from P2 soil or a laboratory reference culture, Glomus mosseae. Light intensity was considerably higher in experiment 2 and resulted in a fourfold higher shoot and tenfold higher root biomass. Under the conditions of experiment 1, biomass was significantly higher and Cd, Cu, Zn and Mn concentrations significantly lower in the mycorrhizal plants than in the nonmycorrhizal plants, suggesting a protection against metal toxicity. In contrast, in experiment 2, biomass did not differ between treatments and only Cu root concentration was decreased with G. mosseae-inoculated plants, whereas Cu shoot concentration was significantly increased with the indigenous P2 fungal culture. The latter achieved a significantly higher root colonization than G. mosseae (31.7 and 19.1%, respectively) suggesting its higher metal tolerance. Zn shoot concentration was higher in both mycorrhizal treatments and Pb concentrations, particularly in the roots, also tended to increase with mycorrhizal colonization. Cd concentrations were not altered between treatments. Cu and Zn, but not Pb and Cd root-shoot translocation increased with mycorrhizal colonization. The results show that the influence of AM on plant metal uptake depends on plant growth conditions, on the fungal partner and on the metal, and cannot be generalized. It is suggested that metal-tolerant mycorrhizal inoculants might be considered for soil reclamation, since under adverse conditions AM may be more important for plant metal resistance. Under the optimized conditions of normal agricultural practice, however, AM colonization even may increase plant metal absorption from polluted soils.     

Proteome profile of the developing maize (Zea mays L.) rachis

In this study, we performed the first high‐throughput proteomic analysis of developing rachis (cob) from maize genotype Mp313E. Using two proteomic approaches, 2‐DE and 2‐D LC, we identified 967 proteins. A 2‐D proteome reference map was established. Functional classification of identified proteins revealed that proteins involved in various cellular metabolisms, response to stimulus and transport, were the most abundant.     

No-tillage effects on soil properties and maize (Zea mays L.) production in Western Nigeria

Summary The grain yields in the no-tillage plots were equivalent to those of conventionally plowed treatments. No-tillage treatments had higher organic matter content and, by controlling soil erosion, the silt and clay content than the plowed plots. The water holding capacity and moisture release characteristics of the surface soil horizon were significantly different for the two tillage treatments. A decrase in the maximum soil temperature and favourable moisture regime in the no-tillage plots stimulated biological activity e.g. earthworms. While the fertilizer had no response on the plowed plots, irrigation had a negative effect due probably to severe leaching losses. No-tillage techniques have a potential in achieving continuous cultivation on otherwise highly erodible and shallow tropical soils.     

Salt tolerance of maize (Zea mays L.): the role of sodium exclusion

The influence of NaCl and Na₂SO₄ on growth of two maize cultivars (Zea mays cv. Pioneer 3906 and cv. Across 8023) differing in Na⁺ uptake was investigated in two green-house experiments. Na⁺ treatment with different accompanying anions (Cl^?/SO₄^2?) showed that ion toxicity was caused by Na⁺. While shoot growth of the two cultivars was markedly affected by salt in comparison to the control during the first 2–3 weeks, there were only slight differences between the cultivars. The shoot Ca²⁺ concentration was reduced in both cultivars, and the youngest leaves contained an even lower concentration compared with the rest of the shoot. During this first phase, Across 8023 tended to have higher concentrations of Ca²⁺ than Pioneer 3906. The Na⁺-excluding cultivar Pioneer 3906 showed continuous, although reduced, growth compared with the control, while the Na⁺ concentration in the shoot decreased until flowering. Cultivar Across 8023 accumulated Na⁺ until flowering: the reduction in the growth of stressed plants was greater than that for Pioneer 3906. Leaves of cultivar Across 8023 showed clear toxic symptoms, while those of the more salt-tolerant cultivar Pioneer 3906 did not. It is concluded that Na⁺ exclusion contributes to the salt tolerance of maize.     

Nutrient transfer between the root zones of soybean and maize plants connected by a common mycorrhizal mycelium

The objective of the study was to determine whether nutrient fluxes mediated by hyphae of vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizal (VAM) fungi between the root zones of grass and legume plants differ with the legume's mode of N nutrition. The plants, nodulating or nonnodulating isolines of soybean [ Glycine max (L.) Merr.], were grown in association with a dwarf maize ( Zea mays L.) cultivar in containers which interposed a 6-cm-wide root-free soil bridge between legume and grass container compartments. The bridge was delimited by screens (44 μm) which permitted the passage of hyphae, but not of roots and minimized non VAM interactions between the plants. All plants were colonized by the VAM fungus Glomus mosseae (Nicol. & Gerd.) Gerd. and Trappe. The effects of N input to N-sufficient soybean plants through N₂-fixation or N-fertilization on associated maize-plant growth and nutrition were compared to those of an N-deficient (nonnodulating, unfertilized) soybean control. Maize, when associated with the N-fertilized soybean, increased 19% in biomass, 67% in N content and 77% in leaf N concentration relative to the maize plants of the N-deficient association. When maize was grown with nodulated soybean, maize N content increased by 22%, biomass did not change, but P content declined by 16%. Spore production by the VAM fungus was greatest in the soils of both plants of the N-fertilized treatment. The patterns of N and P distribution, as well as those of the other essential elements, indicated that association with the N-fertilized soybean plants was more advantageous to maize than was association with the N₂-fixing ones.     

Nitrate-uptake capacity of different root zones of Zea mays (L.) in vitro and in situ

The close relationship between nitrate depletion of the subsoil and root-length densities found in field experiments could not be explained by mathematical models simulating nitrate uptake (Wiesler and Horst, 1994). The objective of the present study was the validation of some of the assumptions made in these models namely uniform nitrate-uptake rates (NURs) independent on root age and daytime.Different techniques were developed and compared for the measurement of NUR of different root zones: (i) isolated root segments, (ii) compartmented uptake cuvettes, (iii) depletion of nitrate (water) from agarose blocks placed on specific zones of roots growing in nutrient solution and (iv) in rhizotrones filled with soil over the whole growing cycle of maize plants. All methods yielded a similar magnitude of NUR (10 - 30 pmol cm-2 s-1). However, only intact plants growing in nutrient solution as well as in soil, but not isolated root segments, showed higher NUR at apical root zones compared to more mature branching root zones by a factor of 2 - 8. The NUR of the root apex was particularly sensitive to the nitrogen demand of the plant and the assimilate supply from the shoots as affected by light intensity. At suboptimal, but not at optimal light conditions during preculture, NUR was lower in the dark than in the light. As plants matured, NUR of soil grown plants became increasingly dependent on water uptake. But even if nitrate uptake by mass flow was subtracted from total nitrate uptake, mature roots showed a surprisingly high nitrate-uptake capacity.The results indicate that the formation of root-age classes with different NUR and the assumption of lower NUR at night could improve the modelling of nitrate uptake.     

Colchicine, an efficient genome-doubling agent for maize (Zea mays L.) microspores cultured in anthero

The construction of maize genotypes with high haploid induction capacity made it possible to study the effect of colchicine on maize androgenesis in vitro. Anther cultures of three hybrids were treated with 0.02% and 0.03% colchicine for 3 days at the beginning of microspore induction. Colchicine added to the induction medium had no negative influence on the androgenic responses (anther induction, induction of structures of microspore origin and their regeneration ability) of the genotypes examined. However, significantly higher fertility was observed in plants originating from colchicine-treated microspores, especially at 0.03%. Cytological examinations showed that colchicine treatment before the first microspore division efficiently arrested mitosis and resulted in homozygous doubled-haploid microspores. Under the experimental conditions, the antimitotic drug had no later effect on the division symmetry of the microspore nucleus, and unequal divisions remained dominant. Callus formation from the induced microspores seemed to be more typical (ranging between 60–70%), but embryo frequency was increased by approximately 10%, especially at the higher colchicine concentration. These results suggest that the mechanism of colchicine action in premitotic maize microspores may differ from that previously observed in wheat. Received: 15 June 1998 / Revision received: 17 September 1998 / Accepted: 3 December 1998     

Effect of environment on the early steps of ear initiation in maize (Zea mays L.)

The effects of environmental conditions on ear-shoot initiation have been investigated in three inbred genotypes of Zea mays L. which are used for seed production. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and binocular examination during the vegetative phase showed that axillary meristems are initiated at the same rate as the leaf primordia on the apical meristem, but with a delay of 5.6–7.0 plastochrons, depending on the genotype. Furthermore, the topmost axillary meristem is initiated on the same day as the tassel, whatever the genotype. One of the inbreds (B22) used in this study has been reported to exhibit, in field conditions, a reproductive failure affecting car initiation, causing the topmost car to be replaced at maturity by a sterile, leaf-like, structure. Scanning electron microscopic study of the formation of the abnormal axillary buds indicated that ear failure resulted from the early collapse of the axillary meristem followed by elongation of the prophyll or of the meristem itself. Using controlled environments, ear abortion was mimicked by a chilling treatment (10°C), given just before tassel initiation. Other factors, such as high irradiance and flooding, enhanced the abortive response. The critical stage for the main car was just before the initiation of the topmost axillary meristem which also corresponded to tassel initiation. Chilling the plants before or after tassel initiation either induced an acclimation response or had no effect. The three inbreds showed differential responses to the stress treatment, indicating that a genetic factor is implicated as well. It is suggested that chilling causes a perturbation of apical dominance which, in the responsive genotypes, represses axillary meristem development. The use of a stress-sensitive inbred such as B22 as a model system could yield some interesting clues to the mechanism of endogenous control of ear initiation in maize.     

Effects of exposure to humid air on epidermal viability and suberin deposition in maize (Zea mays L.) roots

When the basal zones of 4-d-old hydroponically grown maize ( Zea mays L. cv. Seneca Horizon) roots were exposed to moist air for 2 d, the development of both endodermis and exodermis was affected. In the endodermis, Casparian bands enlarged and more cells developed suberin lamellae. The most striking effect was seen in the exodermis. In submerged controls, only 4% of the cells had Casparian bands, whereas in root regions exposed to air, 93% developed these structures. Similarly, in submerged roots 11% of the exodermal cells had either developing or mature suberin lamellae compared with 92% in the air-treated region. The majority of epidermal cells remained alive in the zone exposed to air. Some cell death had occurred earlier in the experiment when the seedlings were transferred from vermiculite to hydroponic culture. The precise stimulus(i) associated with the air treatment which led to accelerated development in both endodermis and exodermis is as yet unknown.     

玉米幼苗根系分泌物对芘污染的响应

根际袋土培试验研究了玉米幼苗根系分泌物中的可溶性糖、低分子量有机酸和氨基酸对不同芘污染水平(50、200、800mgkg-1,记为T1、T2、T3)的响应差异,探讨芘胁迫下植物根系的生理生态效应。结果表明,较低浓度芘可适当地刺激玉米的生长,高浓度芘处理抑制了玉米的生长,并且抑制作用随芘处理浓度的提高而增强;芘对玉米根系的影响要大于对茎叶的影响。芘胁迫下促进了根系分泌可溶性糖、低分子量有机酸和氨基酸增多。T1、T2和T3处理根系分泌物中可溶性糖、低分子量有机酸、氨基酸含量分别是T0处理的1.14、1.81、1.35倍,1.24、4.31、2.94倍,1.58、5.56、5.40倍。不同芘污染水平下,乙酸分泌量表现为T2T3T1,酒石酸和柠檬酸分泌量表现为T3T2T1,草酸分泌量表现为T3≈T2T1。芘处理对根系分泌氨基酸种类的影响不大,而对各氨基酸分泌量的变化幅度影响较大;芘胁迫处理对于18种常见氨基酸组分的分泌量的影响各不相同。不同芘污染水平下,天门冬氨酸、丝氨酸和丙氨酸分泌量表现为T3T2T1,苏氨酸、谷氨酸、脯氨酸、甘氨酸、胱氨酸、缬氨酸、甲硫氨酸、异亮氨酸、亮氨酸、酪氨酸、苯丙氨酸、赖氨酸、组氨酸、γ-氨基丁酸、鸟氨酸分泌量表现为T2T3T1。     

Proteomic analysis of roots growth and metabolic changes under phosphorus deficit in maize (Zea mays L.) plants

Phosphorus (P) deficiency is a major limitation for plant growth and development. Plants can respond defensively to this stress, modifying their metabolic pathways and root morphology, and this involves changes in their gene expression. To better understand the low P adaptive mechanism of crops, we conducted the comparative proteome analysis for proteins isolated from maize roots treated with 1000 microM (control) or 5 microM KH2PO4 for 17 days. The results showed that approximately 20% of detected proteins on 2-DE gels were increased or decreased by two-fold or more under phosphate (Pi) stress. We identified 106 differentially expressed proteins by MALDI-TOF MS. Analysis of these P starvation responsive proteins suggested that they were involved in phytohormone biosynthesis, carbon and energy metabolisms, protein synthesis and fate, signal transduction, cell cycle, cellular organization, defense, secondary metabolism, etc. It could be concluded that they may play important roles in sensing the change of external Pi concentration and regulating complex adaptation activities for Pi deprivation to facilitate P homeostasis. Simultaneously, as a basic platform, the results would also be useful for the further characterization of gene function in plant P nutrition.