Inhibition of tyrosinase by indole compounds and reaction products protection by albumin

Tyrosinase activity decreases as the reaction proceeds and is inhibited by L-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine oxidation products. Indole and tryptophan inhibit tyrosinase reaction and bovine albumin protects against end-products(s) inhibiton or inactivation. Since the same tyrosinase reaction products are indole compounds and some authors reported the binding of indole derivatives with albumin, it is here suggested that indole intermediates of melanin synthesis inhibit or inactivate tyrosinase.     

Removal of phenols and aromatic amines from wastewater by a combination treatment with tyrosinase and a coagulant

Removal of phenols and aromatic amines from industrial wastewater by tyrosinase was investigated. A color change from colorless to darkbrown was observed, but no precipitate was formed. Colored products were found to be easily removed by a combination treatment with tyrosinase and a cationic polymer coagulant containing amino group, such as hexamethylenediamine-epichlorohidrin polycondensate, polyethleneimine, or chitosan. The first two coagulants, synthetic polymers, were more effective than chitosan, a polymer produced in crustacean shells. Phenols and aromatic amines are not precipitated by any kind of coagulants, but their enzymatic reaction products are easily precipitated by a cationic polymer coagulant. These results indicate that the combination of tyrosinase and a cationic polymer coagulant is effective in removing carcinogenic phenols and aromatic amines from an aqueous solution. Immobilization of tyrosinase on magnetite gave a good retention of activity (80%) and storage stability i.e., only 5% loss after 15 days of storage at ambient temperature. In the treatment of immobilized tyrosinase, colored enzymatic reaction products were removed by less coagulant compared with soluble tyrosinase. (c) 1995 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Peroxidase as an alternative to tyrosinase in the oxidative polymerization of 5,6-dihydroxyindoles to melanin(s).

The ability of the peroxidase/H2O2 system to promote the oxidative polymerization of 5,6-dihydroxyindole (DI) and 5,6-dihydroxyindole-2-carboxylic acid (DICA) to melanin pigments was investigated in comparison with tyrosinase. commonly regarded as the sole enzyme involved in melanogenesis. In 0.025 M phosphate buffer at pH 6.8, tyrosinase (2.7 x 10(-3) U/ml) induced a smooth oxidation of 3.0 x 10(-5) M DI (initial rate = 4.4 x 10(-5) M/s) to give a complex mixture of products with the 2,4'-dimer I as the main component, whereas, under the same conditions, peroxidase (0.44 U/ml) and 1.2 x 10(-4) M H2O2 caused the instantaneous conversion of the substrate to a well-defined pattern of products, comprising the 2,4'-and 2,7'-DI dimers I and II, and the related trimers III and IV. When 3.0 x 10(-5) M DICA was used as the substrate, the difference in the effectiveness of the enzymes was much more pronounced. Thus, while peroxidase accomplished the fast oxidation of the indole, yielding the dimer V and the trimer VI as the main products, tyrosinase proved unable to induce more than a poor and sluggish reaction with an initial rate of 5.6.10(-6) M/s. These results raise the possibility that peroxidase, rather than, or in addition to, tyrosinase, may play a critical role in the later stages of the biosynthesis of melanins.     

Indirect oxidation of 6-tetrahydrobiopterin by tyrosinase

6-Tetrahydrobiopterin is known to bind to an allosteric site of tyrosinase to directly inhibit the enzyme. However, simultaneous measurements of ultraviolet-visible absorption spectra and oxygen consumption led us to conclude that the inhibition was due to oxidation of 6-tetrahydrobiopterin by dopaquinone. Immediately after addition of 6-tetrahydrobiopterin, tyrosinase stopped producing dopachrome from either tyrosine or dopa. Duration of inhibition was proportional to the concentration of added 6-tetrahydrobiopterin and the enzyme activity was fully restored after the inhibition. Surprisingly, there was a rapid consumption of oxygen during the inhibition period. In addition, absorption spectra indicated that the only reaction that occurred during the inhibition was oxidation of 6-tetrahydrobiopterin to 7,8-dihydrobiopterin. In the absence of tyrosine or dopa, tyrosinase did not oxidize 6-tetrahydrobiopterin, suggesting that a reaction intermediate between dopa and dopachrome was a target for the inhibition. We propose a new mechanism in which dopa is oxidized to dopaquinone and the latter, instead of producing dopachrome, is reduced back to dopa by 6-tetrahydrobiopterin.     

ENZYMES IN ONTOGENESIS (ORTHOPTERA) : XIII. ACTIVATION OF PROTYROSINASE AND THE OXIDATION OF ASCORBIC ACID

1. Protyrosinase from the egg of the grasshopper, Melanoplus differentialis, can be activated by excess sodium oleate or Aerosol. 2. The 3:4 quinone products of the reaction of activated protyrosinase with tyramine or tyrosine will oxidize ascorbic acid to dehydroascorbic acid. 3. The velocity of this latter oxidation of ascorbic acid increases with the amount of tyramine or tyrosine. 4. The oxidation of ascorbic acid by the tyramine-tyrosinase reaction delays the time of appearance of a red color associated with an indole quinone intermediary product in the formation of melanin. 5. Protyrosinase, in itself, and in the presence of tyrosinase substrates does not bring about the oxidation of ascorbic acid. 6. A naturally occurring substrate in a preparation of protyrosinase, sufficient to cause the oxidation of ascorbic acid, can be removed by dialysis against a 0.9 per cent sodium chloride solution. 7. Dialysis against such a solution does not change the properties of protyrosinase; the inactive enzyme must still be activated before it will catalyze the oxidation of tyramine or tyrosine. 8. When the natural substrate, tyrosine, or tyramine is absent, activation of protyrosinase does not result in the oxidation of ascorbic acid.     

Melanogenesis inhibition by tetrahydropterines

There is controversy in the literature concerning the action of tetrahydropterines on the enzyme tyrosinase and on melanogenesis in general. In this study, we demonstrate that tetrahydropterines can inhibit melanogenesis in several ways: i) by non-enzymatic inhibition involving purely chemical reactions reducing o-dopaquinone to L-dopa, ii) by acting as substrates which compete with L-tyr and L-dopa, since they are substrates of tyrosinase; and iii) by irreversibly inhibiting the enzymatic forms met-tyrosinase and deoxy-tyrosinase in anaerobic conditions. Three tetrahydropterines have been kinetically characterised as tyrosinase substrates: 6-R-L-erythro-5,6,7,8-tetrahydrobiopterin, 6-methyl-5,6,7,8-tetrahydropterine and 6,7-(R,S)-dimethyl-5,6,7,8-tetrahydropterine. A kinetic reaction mechanism is proposed to explain the oxidation of these compounds by tyrosinase.     

The inhibition of tyrosinase by pyridinones.

3-Hydroxypyridine-4-ones have potential as orally active chelators of iron(III) and therefore may find application in the treatment of thalassaemia. An undesirable feature of these molecules is that they inhibit tyrosinase. We have established that alkyl substitution at position 2 in the aromatic ring minimizes interaction with tyrosinase and does so without appreciably influencing the affinity for iron(III).     

Induction of B16 melanoma melanogenesis by a serum-free synthetic medium.

Cultured murine B16 melanoma cells normally grow as spindle-shaped cells firmly attached to tissue culture flasks. Pellets obtained from harvested B16 melanoma cells are white to grey in color. When the same cells were grown in synthetic, serum-free AIM V medium, cellular morphology and pigmentation were radically altered. Within 3 days of subculture in AIM V, cells rounded up and grew in clusters in suspension. Melanin content increased to greater than 30 times and tyrosinase activity was found to be 10-50 times higher in cells grown in AIM V medium compared to those cultured in normal medium. A concomitant increase in the level of immunoreactive tyrosinase was also induced. The individual growth factors and hormones present in AIM V medium were examined to determine which component(s) stimulates melanogenesis. Only those cells grown in the presence of 2.5% human albumin were stimulated to synthesize melanin. These findings suggest that albumin, or a component associated with albumin, has a major effect upon the regulation of melanogenesis in these cells.     

Regulation of the final phase of mammalian melanogenesis. The role of dopachrome tautomerase and the ratio between 5,6-dihydroxyindole-2-carboxylic acid and 5,6-dihydroxyindole.

The regulation of the final steps of the melanogenesis pathway, after L-2-carboxy-2,3-dihydroindole-5,6-quinone (dopachrome) formation, is studied. It is shown that both tyrosinase and dopachrome tautomerase are involved in the process. In vivo, it seems that tyrosinase is involved in the regulation of the amount of melanin formed, whereas dopachrome tautomerase is mainly involved in the size, structure and composition of melanin, by regulating to the incorporation of 5,6-dihydroxyindole-2-carboxylic acid (DHICA) into the polymer. Moreover, using L-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (dopa) and related compounds, it was shown that the presence of dopachrome tautomerase mediates an initial acceleration of melanogenesis since L-dopachrome is rapidly transformed to DHICA, but that melanin formation is inhibited because of the stability of this carboxylated indole compared to 5,6-dihydroxyindole (DHI), its decarboxylated counterpart obtained by spontaneous decarboxylation of L-dopachrome. Using L-dopa methyl ester as a precursor of melanogenesis, it is shown that this carboxylated indole does not polymerize in the absence of DHI, even in the presence of tyrosinase. However, it is incorporated into the polymer in the presence of both tyrosinase and DHI. Thus, this study suggests that DHI is essential for melanin formation, and the rate of polymerization depends on the ratio between DHICA and DHI in the medium. In the melanosome, this ratio should be regulated by the ratio between the activities of dopachrome tautomerase and tyrosinase.     

Generation of superoxide during the enzymatic action of tyrosinase.

Evidence for the generation of superoxide anion in an enzymatic action of tyrosinase is reported. In the dopatyrosinase reaction, 1 mol of O2 is required for the production of 2 mol of dopaquinone, 1 mol of dopachrome, and 1/4 mol of O2-. Superoxide dismutase and 2-methyl-6-phenyl-3,7-dihydroimidazo[1,2-a]pyrazin-3-one (a chemiluminescence probe and O2 trap) do not inhibit the rate of dopachrome formation from dopa in the presence of tyrosinase, indicating that free O2- is not utilized for metabolizing dopa. ESR studies for the accumulation of semiquinone radicals generated from tyrosine and N-acetyltyrosine in the presence of tyrosinase imply that O2- is not generated by the semiquinone + O2 reaction. Since the addition of H2O2 and dopa to tyrosinase promotes the release of O2- and formation of dopachrome, the Cu(II)O2-Cu(I) complex could be formed as a intermediate (an active form of tyrosinase); [Cu(II)]2 + H2O2 in equilibrium Cu(I)O2-Cu(II) + 2H+.     

Synthesis of 1,6,7,8-tetrahydro-naphtho[2,3-d]-azepino[4,5-b]indole-9,14-diones and their inhibitory effects on pro-inflammatory cytokines

A rapid route to a series of naphthoquinone-fused indole derivatives via irradiation in a modified commercial domestic microwave is reported. The desired products were produced in high yields and short reaction times. The naphthoquinone-fused indole derivatives were evaluated for their pro-inflammatory cytokines responses using lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW264.7 murine macrophages. The results showed that most of the tested compounds inhibit the production of nitric oxide (NO), prostaglandin (PG)E₂, tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interleukin (IL)-6 and IL-1β in RAW264.7 cells treated with LPS.     

Oxidation of indole and its derivatives by heme-independent chloroperoxidases]

Indole, indolylacetic acid, and tryptophan were oxidized by cloroperoxidases isolated from strains of Streptomyces lividans and Pseudomonas pyrrocinia. Indigo (indoxyl), isatin, and anthranilic acid (intermediate products of oxidative degradation of indole and indole derivatives) were extracted from the reaction medium.     

Indole protects tryptophan indole-lyase, but not tryptophan synthase, from inactivation by trifluoroalanine.

Trifluoroalanine is a mechanism-based inactivator of Escherichia coli tryptophan indole-lyase (tryptophanase) and E. coli tryptophan synthase (R. B. Silverman and R. H. Abeles, 1976, Biochemistry 15, 4718-4723). We have found that indole is able to prevent inactivation of tryptophan indole-lyase by trifluoroalanine. The protection of tryptophan indole-lyase by indole exhibits saturation kinetics, with a KD of 0.03 mM, which is comparable to the KI for inhibition of pyruvate ion formation (0.01 mM) and the Km for L-tryptophan synthesis. Fluoride electrode measurements indicate the formation of 28 mol of fluoride ion per mole of enzyme during inactivation of tryptophan indole-lyase, and 121 mol of fluoride ion are formed per mole of enzyme in the presence of 2 mM indole during the same incubation period. 19F NMR spectra of reaction mixtures of tryptophan indole-lyase and trifluoroalanine showed evidence only for fluoride ion formation, in either the absence or the presence of indole, and difluoropyruvic acid was not detected. The partition ratio, kcat/kinact, is estimated to be 9. Tryptophan indole-lyase in the presence of trifluoroalanine exhibits visible absorption peaks at 446 and 478 nm, which decay at the same rate as inactivation. However, in the presence of 1 mM indole and trifluoralanine, tryptophan indole-lyase exhibits a peak only at 420 nm, and the spectra show a gradual increase at 300-310 nm with incubation. In contrast, tryptophan synthase is not protected by indole from inactivation by trifluoroalanine, and the absorption peak at 408 nm for the tryptophan synthase-trifluoroalanine complex is unaffected by indole. These results demonstrate that inactivation of tryptophan indole-lyase occurs via a catalytically competent species, probably the beta,beta-difluoro-alpha-aminoacrylate intermediate, which can be partitioned from inactivation to products by a reactive aromatic nucleophile, indole.     

The modification of the lone tryptophan residue in human serum albumin by 2-hydroxy-5-nitrobenzyl bromide. Characterization of the modified protein and the binding of L-tryptophan and benzodiazepines to the tryptophan-modified albumin.

The possible function of the lone tryptophan residue of human serum albumin in the stereospecific binding site for indole and benzodiazepine compounds was investigated by chemical modification. This residue can be selectively modified with 2-hydroxy-5-nitrobenzyl bromide. The modification alters the conformation of the albumin only slightly, as revealed by circular dichroism, fluorescence, and ultraviolet absorption measurements. A decrease in the association constants of L-tryptophan and diazepam of about 30 - 50% and a decrease in the extrinsic Cotton effects of four benzodiazepine derivatives of about 10 - 15% were found as specific effects of the tryptophan modification. The tryptophan modification itself did not change the number of binding sites of diazepam and L-tryptophan. It is suggested that the lone tryptophan residue of human serum albumin is not directly involved in the specific binding site for indole and benzodiazepine compounds. However, the modification alters the properties of the binding site either by an incomplete refolding of the albumin after urea treatment, or a more selective allosteric effect of the modified tryptophan residue.     

Beta-elimination of indole from L-tryptophan catalyzed by bacterial tryptophan synthase: a comparison between reactions catalyzed by tryptophanase and tryptophan synthase

Although tryptophan synthase catalyzes a number of pyridoxal phosphate dependent beta-elimination and beta-replacement reactions that are also catalyzed by tryptophanase, a principal and puzzling difference between the two enzymes lies in the apparent inability of tryptophan synthase to catalyze beta-elimination of indole from L-tryptophan. We now demonstrate for the first time that the beta 2 subunit and the alpha 2 beta 2 complex of tryptophan synthase from Escherichia coli and from Salmonella typhimurium do catalyze a slow beta-elimination reaction with L-tryptophan to produce indole, pyruvate, and ammonia. The rate of the reaction is about 10-fold higher in the presence of the alpha subunit. The rate of indole production is increased about 4-fold when the aminoacrylate produced is converted to S-(hydroxyethyl)-L-cysteine by a coupled beta-replacement reaction with beta-mercaptoethanol. The rate of L-tryptophan cleavage is also increased when the indole produced is removed by extraction with toluene or by condensation with D-glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate to form indole-3-glycerol phosphate in a reaction catalyzed by the alpha subunit of tryptophan synthase. The amount of L-tryptophan cleavage is greatest in the presence of both beta-mercaptoethanol and D-glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate, which cause the removal of both products of cleavage. The cleavage reaction is not due to contaminating tryptophanase since the activity is not inhibited by (3R)-2,3-dihydro-L-tryptophan, a specific inhibitor of tryptophanase, but is inhibited by (3S)-2,3-dihydro-L-tryptophan, a specific inhibitor of tryptophan synthase. The cleavage reaction is also inhibited by D-tryptophan, the product of a slow racemization reaction.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Molecular mechanism of tyrosinase regulation by L-dopa in hamster melanoma cells

Exposure of hamster amelanotic melanoma cells to L-dihydroxyphenylalanine (L-DOPA) resulted in a time dependent increase of cell pigmentation, tyrosinase concentration and activity with peak after 24 hours. Northern blot analysis showed a small but reproducible increase of tyrosinase mRNA after 3 hours and a decrease below the control level after 9 hours. After 24 and 48 hours tyrosinase mRNA was undetectable. It is suggested that L-DOPA or its oxidation products can stimulate intracellular tyrosinase concentration and regulate tyrosinase mRNA level both in positive and negative fashion.     

The influence of hydroquinone on tyrosinase kinetics

In vitro studies, using combined spectrophotometry and oximetry together with hplc/ms examination of the products of tyrosinase action demonstrate that hydroquinone is not a primary substrate for the enzyme but is vicariously oxidised by a redox exchange mechanism in the presence of either catechol, L-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine or 4-ethylphenol. Secondary addition products formed in the presence of hydroquinone are shown to stimulate, rather than inhibit, the kinetics of substrate oxidation.     

Inhibition of amylases from different origins by albumins from the wheat kernel.

The amylase activity of water extracts from 18 insect species, from 23 marine species and from 17 different species of birds and mammals was determined quantitatively. The inhibition of amylase in these extracts by three albumin fractions from the mature wheat kernel, which had been separated according to their molecular weights (60 000, 24 000 and 12 500 D), was determined as well. The inhibition activity of the three albumin fractions toward amylases extracted from a number of cereal species or from immature and germinating wheat kernel was also tested. The extracts from insects that are destructive of wheat grain and stored wheat products showed much higher amylase activities as compared to the other insect species that do not attack wheat and wheat products. On the basis of the effectiveness with which the three albumin fractions inhibit their activities, the amylase preparations tested were divided into susceptible, partially susceptible and resistent. Susceptible amylases, inhibited by any of the three albumin fractions, were found mainly in insects that attack wheat and in marine species. Partially susceptible amylases, inhibited by only one or two of the three albumin fractions, were present in a few avain and mammalian species including man. Resistent amylases were largely distributed in cereal, avian and mammalian species as well as in insect species that do not usually attack wheat grain or wheat flour products. At no stage of development, wheat alpha-amylase was inhibited by the albumin fractions from the mature kernel. The 12 500 dalton albumin fraction was the most effective in inhibiting insect amylases, but it was inactive toward avian and mammalian amylases. The 24 000 dalton albumin fraction was the most effective in inhibiting amylases from marine avian and mammalian species and inhibited as much as 33 amylases over 66 different amylases tested. It is suggested that protein inhibitors of amylase contributed to natural selection of polyploid wheats by giving some insect resistence to such wheats, even though some insect species were able to overcome this biochemical defense toa large degree by producing higher amylase activities.     

Modulating effects of a novel skin-lightening agent, alpha-lipoic acid derivative, on melanin production by the formation of DOPA conjugate products

Sodium zinc dihydrolipoylhistidinate (DHLHZn) is a compound of Zn(2+)/dihydrolipoic acid derivate complex, which was developed for cosmetic/medical use. To characterize DHLHZn as a novel skin-lightening agent, inhibitory actions of DHLHZn on tyrosinase (including its reaction pathway) have been elucidated in this study. In a B16 melanoma cell system, DHLHZn was active in suppressing the synthesis of melanins as well as alpha-arbutin, well known as a depigmenting drug. Furthermore, in a tyrosinase assay, DHLHZn showed stronger inhibitory effect on DOPAchrome formation than other tyrosinase inhibitors such as kojic acid. Our previous report demonstrated that the sulfhydryl groups of lipoyl motif react with DOPAquinone to form lipoyl DOPA conjugates. We therefore postulated that conjugated products between DHLHZn and DOPAquinone might be formed. Upon reaction of DHLHZn with L-DOPA following tyrosinase-catalyzed oxidation, the formation of DHLH DOPA conjugated products was confirmed by HPLC-tandem mass spectrometry using reserpine as the internal standard. In addition, the inhibitory kinetics analyzed by a Lineweaver-Burk plot exhibited the reversibility of DHLHZn as a competitive inhibitor with a KI value of 0.35 microM. These results indicate that this covalent reaction might contribute to alternating DOPAquinone, which is a tyrosinase reaction product, and result in the competitive inhibitory effect of DHLHZn on DOPAchrome formation. DHLHZn may thus serve as a potentially effective skin-lightening agent, an effectiveness that is based on the compound's covalent scavenging of DOPAquinone resulting in depigmentation.