Impact of heme oxygenase-1 on cholesterol synthesis, cholesterol efflux and oxysterol formation in cultured astroglia

Up-regulation of heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) and altered cholesterol (CH) metabolism are characteristic of Alzheimer-diseased neural tissues. The liver X receptor (LXR) is a molecular sensor of CH homeostasis. In the current study, we determined the effects of HO-1 over-expression and its byproducts iron (Fe²⁺), carbon monoxide (CO) and bilirubin on CH biosynthesis, CH efflux and oxysterol formation in cultured astroglia. HO-1/LXR interactions were also investigated in the context of CH efflux. hHO-1 over-expression for 3 days (∼2–3-fold increase) resulted in a 30% increase in CH biosynthesis and a two-fold rise in CH efflux. Both effects were abrogated by the competitive HO inhibitor, tin mesoporphyrin. CO, released from administered CORM-3, significantly enhanced CH biosynthesis; a combination of CO and iron stimulated CH efflux. Free iron increased oxysterol formation three-fold. Co-treatment with LXR antagonists implicated LXR activation in the modulation of CH homeostasis by heme degradation products. In Alzheimer's disease and other neuropathological states, glial HO-1 induction may transduce ambient noxious stimuli (e.g. β-amyloid) into altered patterns of glial CH homeostasis. As the latter may impact synaptic plasticity and neuronal repair, modulation of glial HO-1 expression (by pharmacological or other means) may confer neuroprotection in patients with degenerative brain disorders.     

A liver X receptor and retinoid X receptor heterodimer mediates apolipoprotein E expression, secretion and cholesterol homeostasis in astrocytes

Apolipoprotein E (apoE) is an important protein involved in lipoprotein clearance and cholesterol redistribution. ApoE is abundantly expressed in astrocytes in the brain and is closely linked to the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD). We report here that small molecule ligands that activate either liver X receptors (LXR) or retinoid X receptor (RXR) lead to a dramatic increase in apoE mRNA and protein expression as well as secretion of apoE in a human astrocytoma cell line (CCF-STTG1 cells). Examination of primary mouse astrocytes also revealed significant induction of apoE mRNA, and protein expression and secretion following incubation with LXR/RXR agonists. Moreover, treatment of mice with a specific synthetic LXR agonist T0901317 resulted in up-regulation of apoE mRNA and protein in both hippocampus and cerebral cortex, indicating that apoE expression in brain can be up-regulated by LXR agonists in vivo. Along with a dramatic induction of ABCA1 cholesterol transporter expression, these ligands effectively mediate cholesterol efflux in both CCF-STTG1 cells and mouse astrocytes in the presence or absence of apolipoprotein AI (apoAI). Our studies provide strong evidence that small molecule LXR/RXR agonists can effectively mediate apoE synthesis and secretion as well as cholesterol homeostasis in astrocytes. LXR/RXR agonists may have significant impact on the pathogenesis of multiple neurological diseases, including AD.     

Studies on LXR- and FXR-mediated effects on cholesterol homeostasis in normal and cholic acid-depleted mice

As previously reported by us, mice with targeted disruption of the CYP8B1 gene (CYP8B1-/-) fail to produce cholic acid (CA), upregulate their bile acid synthesis, reduce the absorption of dietary cholesterol and, after cholesterol feeding, accumulate less liver cholesterol than wild-type (CYP8B1+/+) mice. In the present study, cholesterol-enriched diet (0.5%) or administration of a synthetic liver X receptor (LXR) agonist strongly upregulated CYP7A1 expression in CYP8B1-/- mice, compared to CYP8B1+/+ mice. Cholesterol-fed CYP8B1-/- mice also showed a significant rise in HDL cholesterol and increased levels of liver ABCA1 mRNA. A combined CA (0.25%)/cholesterol (0.5%) diet enhanced absorption of intestinal cholesterol in both groups of mice, increased their liver cholesterol content, and reduced their expression of CYP7A1 mRNA. The ABCG5/G8 liver mRNA was increased in both groups of mice, but cholesterol crystals were only observed in bile from the CYP8B1+/+ mice. The results demonstrate the cholesterol-sparing effects of CA: enhanced absorption and reduced conversion into bile acids. Farnesoid X receptor (FXR)-mediated suppression of CYP7A1 in mice seems to be a predominant mechanism for regulation of bile acid synthesis under normal conditions and, as confirmed, able to override LXR-mediated mechanisms. Interaction between FXR- and LXR-mediated stimuli might also regulate expression of liver ABCG5/G8.     

Brain sterol dysregulation in sporadic AD and MCI: relationship to heme oxygenase-1

The objective of this study was to ascertain the impact of aging and Alzheimer's disease (AD) on brain cholesterol (CH), CH precursors, and oxysterol homeostasis. Altered CH metabolism and up-regulation of heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) are characteristic of AD-affected neural tissues. We recently determined that HO-1 over-expression suppresses total CH levels by augmenting liver X receptor-mediated CH efflux and enhances oxysterol formation in cultured astroglia. Lipids and proteins were extracted from postmortem human frontal cortex derived from subjects with sporadic AD, mild cognitive impairment (MCI), and no cognitive impairment ( n  = 17 per group) enrolled in the Religious Orders Study, an ongoing clinical-pathologic study of aging and AD. ELISA was used to quantify human HO-1 protein expression from brain tissue and gas chromatography–mass spectrometry to quantify total CH, CH precursors, and relevant oxysterols. The relationships of sterol/oxysterol levels to HO-1 protein expression and clinical/demographic variables were determined by multivariable regression and non-parametric statistical analyses. Decreased CH, increased oxysterol and increased CH precursors concentrations in the cortex correlated significantly with HO-1 levels in MCI and AD, but not no cognitive impairment. Specific oxysterols correlated with disease state, increasing neuropathological burden, neuropsychological impairment, and age. A model featuring compensated and de-compensated states of altered sterol homeostasis in MCI and AD is presented based on the current data set and our earlier in vitro work.     

Heme oxygenase-1 and neurodegeneration: expanding frontiers of engagement

The heme oxygenases (HOs), responsible for the degradation of heme to biliverdin/bilirubin, free iron and CO, have been heavily implicated in mammalian CNS aging and disease. In normal brain, the expression of HO-2 is constitutive, abundant and fairly ubiquitous, whereas HO-1 mRNA and protein are confined to small populations of scattered neurons and neuroglia. In contradistinction to HO-2, the ho-1 gene ( Hmox1 ) is exquisitely sensitive to induction by a wide range of pro-oxidant and other stressors. In Alzheimer disease and mild cognitive impairment, immunoreactive HO-1 protein is over-expressed in neurons and astrocytes of the cerebral cortex and hippocampus relative to age-matched, cognitively intact controls and co-localizes to senile plaques, neurofibrillary tangles, and corpora amylacea. In Parkinson disease, HO-1 is markedly over-expressed in astrocytes of the substantia nigra and decorates Lewy bodies in affected dopaminergic neurons. HMOX1 is also up-regulated in glial cells surrounding human cerebral infarcts, hemorrhages and contusions, within multiple sclerosis plaques, and in other degenerative and inflammatory human CNS disorders. Heme-derived free ferrous iron, CO, and biliverdin/bilirubin are biologically active substances that have been shown to either ameliorate or exacerbate neural injury contingent upon specific disease models employed, the intensity and duration of HO-1 expression and the nature of the prevailing redox microenvironment. In 'stressed' astroglia, HO-1 hyperactivity promotes mitochondrial sequestration of non-transferrin iron and macroautophagy and may thereby contribute to the pathological iron deposition and bioenergetic failure amply documented in Alzheimer disease, Parkinson disease and other aging-related neurodegenerative disorders. Glial HO-1 expression may also impact cell survival and neuroplasticity in these conditions by modulating brain sterol metabolism and proteosomal degradation of neurotoxic protein aggregates.     

Lipoproteins, cholesterol homeostasis and cardiac health

Cholesterol is an essential substance involved in many functions, such as maintaining cell membranes, manufacturing vitamin D on surface of the skin, producing hormones, and possibly helping cell connections in the brain. When cholesterol levels rise in the blood, they can, however, have dangerous consequences. In particular, cholesterol has generated considerable notoriety for its causative role in atherosclerosis, the leading cause of death in developed countries around the world. Homeostasis of cholesterol is centered on the metabolism of lipoproteins, which mediate transport of the lipid to and from tissues. As a synopsis of the major events and proteins that manage lipoprotein homeostasis, this review contributes to the substantial attention that has recently been directed to this area. Despite intense scrutiny, the majority of phenotypic variation in total cholesterol and related traits eludes explanation by current genetic knowledge. This is somewhat disappointing considering heritability estimates have established these traits as highly genetic. Thus, the continued search for candidate genes, mutations, and mechanisms is vital to our understanding of heart disease at the molecular level. Furthermore, as marker development continues to predict risk of vascular illness, this knowledge has the potential to revolutionize treatment of this leading human disease.     

LXR and ABCA1 control cholesterol homeostasis in the proximal mouse epididymis in a cell-specific manner

Mammalian spermatozoa undergo important plasma membrane maturation steps during epididymal transit. Among these, changes in lipids and cholesterol are of particular interest as they are necessary for fertilization. However, molecular mechanisms regulating these transformations inside the epididymis are still poorly understood. Liver X receptors (LXRs), the nuclear receptors for oxysterols, are of major importance in intracellular cholesterol homeostasis, and LXR^−/−-deficient male mice have already been shown to have reduced fertility at an age of 5 months and complete sterility for 9-month-old animals. This sterility phenotype is associated with testes and caput epididymides epithelial defects. The research presented here was aimed at investigating how LXRs act in the male caput epididymidis by analyzing key actors in cholesterol homeostasis. We show that accumulation of cholesteryl esters in LXR^−/− male mice is associated with a specific loss of ABCA1 and an increase in apoptosis of apical cells of the proximal caput epididymidis. ATP-binding cassette G1 (ABCG1) and scavenger receptor B1 (SR-B1), two other cholesterol transporters, show little if any modifications. Our study also revealed that SR-B1 appears to have a peculiar expression pattern along the epididymal duct. These results should help in understanding the functional roles of LXR in cholesterol trafficking processes in caput epididymidis.     

Aldo-keto reductase 1B7 is a target gene of FXR and regulates lipid and glucose homeostasis

Aldo-keto reductase 1B7 (AKR1B7) is proposed to play a role in detoxification of by-products of lipid peroxidation. In this article, we show that activation of the nuclear receptor farnesoid X receptor (FXR) induces AKR1B7 expression in the liver and intestine, and reduces the levels of malondialdehyde (MDA), the end product of lipid peroxidation, in the intestine but not in the liver. To determine whether AKR1B7 regulates MDA levels in vivo, we overexpressed AKR1B7 in the liver. Overexpression of AKR1B7 in the liver had no effect on hepatic or plasma MDA levels. Interestingly, hepatic expression of AKR1B7 significantly lowered plasma glucose levels in both wild-type and diabetic db/db mice, which was associated with reduced hepatic gluconeogenesis. Hepatic expression of AKR1B7 also significantly lowered hepatic triglyceride and cholesterol levels in db/db mice. These data reveal a novel function for AKR1B7 in lipid and glucose metabolism and suggest that AKR1B7 may not play a role in detoxification of lipid peroxides in the liver. AKR1B7 may be a therapeutic target for treatment of fatty liver disease associated with diabetes mellitus.     

降脂益生菌对非酒精性脂肪性肝病小鼠胆汁酸代谢及转运的影响和机制初探

目的探讨降脂益生菌(鼠李糖乳杆菌DM9054和植物乳杆菌86066联合制剂)对非酒精性脂肪性肝病(nonalcoholic fatty liver disease, NAFLD)小鼠胆汁酸代谢及转运的影响和可能机制。方法 18只雄性FXR-/-小鼠随机分为3组(n=6):正常饮食组、高脂饮食组和高脂饮食+降脂益生菌组。其中正常饮食组给予普通饮食和生理盐水灌胃,高脂饮食组给予高脂饮食和生理盐水灌胃,高脂饮食+降脂益生菌组给予高脂饮食和降脂益生菌灌胃。所有小鼠干预12周,处死小鼠1周前行胰岛素耐量试验和腹腔注射葡萄糖耐量试验。小鼠处死后自动生化分析仪检测血脂、胆汁酸及肝功能指标;RT-PCR检测肝脏和回肠组织炎症因子相对表达量;HE染色评估肝脏和回肠组织病理情况;Western blot检测法尼醇受体(Farnesoid X receptor, FXR)通路中的成纤维细胞生长因子15(fibroblast growth factor 15,FGF15)、成纤维细胞生长因子受体4(fibroblast growth factor receptor 4,FGFR4)和小分子异源二聚体(short heterodimer partner, SHP)、胆汁酸合成限速酶胆固醇7α-羟化酶(cholesterol 7α-hydroxylase, CYP7A1)及胆汁酸转运相关的胆盐输出泵(bile salt export pump, BSEP)的蛋白表达。结果和高脂饮食组相比,高脂饮食+降脂益生菌组小鼠血清中胆汁酸含量明显下降(P=0.000 1),FGF15、FGFR4和BSEP蛋白表达水平升高(P=0.009 7、0.024 2、0.000 1),CYP7A1的蛋白表达水平降低(P=0.006 9)。此外,通过降脂益生菌干预还明显改善了高脂饮食FXR-/-小鼠的糖脂代谢紊乱(P=0.002 4)、肝脏脂肪变性、肝脏和回肠组织炎症(P=0.013 8、0.000 1、0.000 1)以及肠黏膜屏障功能(P=0.014 2)。结论降脂益生菌具有类似选择性肠道FXR激动剂的作用,能够通过调控肠道FXR-FGF15通路改善胆汁酸的代谢及转运,进而缓解高脂饮食FXR-/-小鼠的NAFLD。     

24S-hydroxycholesterol induces cholesterol release from choroid plexus epithelial cells in an apical- and apoE isoform-dependent manner concomitantly with the induction of ABCA1 and ABCG1 expression

The release of cholesterol from choroid plexus epithelial cells (CPE) plays an important role in cholesterol homeostasis in the CSF. The purpose of this study was to clarify the molecules involved in cholesterol release in CPE and the regulation mechanisms of the cholesterol release by the liver X receptor (LXR) using a conditionally immortalized CPE line (TR-CSFB3). The mRNA expression of LXRalpha, LXRbeta and their target genes, ATP-binding cassette transporter (ABC)A1, ABCG1, ABCG4 and ABCG5, were detected in rat choroid plexus. ABCA1 and ABCG1 protein were detected in the plasma membrane of TR-CSFB3 cells. Following treatment with 24S-hydroxycholesterol, an endogenous LXR ligand, the expression of ABCA1 and ABCG1 were induced in TR-CSFB3 cells. Moreover, apolipoprotein (apo)AI- and high-density lipoprotein (HDL)-mediated cholesterol release to the apical side of TR-CSFB3 cells was facilitated by this treatment, whereas that to the basal side was not affected. Following 24S-hydroxycholesterol treatment, apoE3-dependent cholesterol release from TR-CSFB3 cells was enhanced more than the apoE4-dependent release. These results suggest that LXR activation facilitates cholesterol release into the CSF from CPE through the functional induction of ABCA1 and ABCG1. The difference between apoE3 and apoE4 suggests that the cholesterol release from CPE is related to the development of neurodegenerative diseases.     

Proinflammatory cytokines promote glial heme oxygenase-1 expression and mitochondrial iron deposition: implications for multiple sclerosis

Proinflammatory cytokines, pathological iron deposition, and oxidative stress have been implicated in the pathogenesis of multiple sclerosis (MS) and experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). HO-1 mRNA levels and mitochondrial uptake of [(55)Fe]Cl(3)-derived iron were measured in rat astroglial cultures exposed to interleukin-1beta (IL-1beta) or tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) alone or in combination with the heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) inhibitors, tin mesoporphyrin (SnMP) or dexamthasone (DEX), or interferon beta1b (INF-beta). HO-1 expression in astrocytes was evaluated by immunohistochemical staining of spinal cord tissue derived from MS and control subjects. IL-1beta or TNF-alpha promoted sequestration of non-transferrin-derived (55)Fe by astroglial mitochondria. HO-1 inhibitors, mitochondrial permeability transition pore (MTP) blockers and antioxidants significantly attenuated cytokine-related mitochondrial iron sequestration in these cells. IFN-beta decreased HO-1 expression and mitochondrial iron sequestration in IL-1beta- and TNF-alpha-challenged astroglia. The percentage of astrocytes coexpressing HO-1 in affected spinal cord from MS patients (57.3% +/- 12.8%) was significantly greater (p < 0.05) than in normal spinal cord derived from controls subjects (15.4% +/- 8.4%). HO-1 is over-expressed in MS spinal cord astroglia and may promote mitochondrial iron deposition in MS plaques. In MS, IFN-beta may attenuate glial HO-1 gene induction and aberrant mitochondrial iron deposition accruing from exposure to proinflammatory cytokines.     

Cholesterol efflux is differentially regulated in neurons and astrocytes: Implications for brain cholesterol homeostasis

Disruption of cholesterol homeostasis in the central nervous system (CNS) has been associated with neurological, neurodegenerative, and neurodevelopmental disorders. The CNS is a closed system with regard to cholesterol homeostasis, as cholesterol-delivering lipoproteins from the periphery cannot pass the blood–brain-barrier and enter the brain. Different cell types in the brain have different functions in the regulation of cholesterol homeostasis, with astrocytes producing and releasing apolipoprotein E and lipoproteins, and neurons metabolizing cholesterol to 24(S)-hydroxycholesterol. We present evidence that astrocytes and neurons adopt different mechanisms also in regulating cholesterol efflux. We found that in astrocytes cholesterol efflux is induced by both lipid-free apolipoproteins and lipoproteins, while cholesterol removal from neurons is triggered only by lipoproteins. The main pathway by which apolipoproteins induce cholesterol efflux is through ABCA1. By upregulating ABCA1 levels and by inhibiting its activity and silencing its expression, we show that ABCA1 is involved in cholesterol efflux from astrocytes but not from neurons. Furthermore, our results suggest that ABCG1 is involved in cholesterol efflux to apolipoproteins and lipoproteins from astrocytes but not from neurons, while ABCG4, whose expression is much higher in neurons than astrocytes, is involved in cholesterol efflux from neurons but not astrocytes. These results indicate that different mechanisms regulate cholesterol efflux from neurons and astrocytes, reflecting the different roles that these cell types play in brain cholesterol homeostasis. These results are important in understanding cellular targets of therapeutic drugs under development for the treatments of conditions associated with altered cholesterol homeostasis in the CNS.     

Dysregulation of leptin signaling in Alzheimer disease: evidence for neuronal leptin resistance

Leptin signaling has received considerable attention in the Alzheimer disease (AD) field. Within the past decade, the peptide hormone has been demonstrated to attenuate tau hyperphosphorylation in neuronal cells and to be modulated by amyloid‐β. Moreover, a role in neuroprotection and neurogenesis within the hippocampus has been shown in animal models. To further characterize the association between leptin signaling and vulnerable regions in AD, we assessed the profile of leptin and the leptin receptor in AD and control patients. We analyzed leptin levels in CSF, and the concentration and localization of leptin and leptin receptor in the hippocampus. Significant elevations in leptin levels in both CSF and hippocampal tissue of AD patients, compared with age‐matched control cases, indicate a physiological up‐regulation of leptin in AD. However, the level of leptin receptor mRNA decreased in AD brain and the leptin receptor protein was localized to neurofibrillary tangles, suggesting a severe discontinuity in the leptin signaling pathway. Collectively, our results suggest that leptin resistance in the hippocampus may play a role in the characteristic changes associated with the disease. These findings are the first to demonstrate such dysregulated leptin‐signaling circuitry and provide novel insights into the possible role of aberrant leptin signaling in AD.

     

Ubiquilin-1 and protein quality control in Alzheimer disease

Single nucleotide polymorphisms in the ubiquilin-1 gene may confer risk for late-onset Alzheimer disease (AD). We have shown previously that ubiquilin-1 functions as a molecular chaperone for the amyloid precursor protein (APP) and that protein levels of ubiquilin-1 are decreased in the brains of AD patients. We have recently found that ubiquilin-1 regulates APP trafficking and subsequent secretase processing by stimulating non-degradative ubiquitination of a single lysine residue in the cytosolic domain of APP. Thus, ubiquilin-1 plays a central role in regulating APP biosynthesis, trafficking and ultimately toxicity. As ubiquilin-1 and other ubiquilin family members have now been implicated in the pathogenesis of numerous neurodegenerative diseases, these findings provide mechanistic insights into the central role of ubiquilin proteins in maintaining neuronal proteostasis.