Juvenile ornithopod (Dinosauria: Rhabdodontidae) remains from the Upper Cretaceous (Lower Campanian, Gosau Group) of Muthmannsdorf (Lower Austria)

The fragmentary remains of a juvenile rhabdodontid ornithopod from the Coal-bearing Complex of the Gosau Group (Lower Campanian, Grünbach syncline) at Muthmannsdorf near Wiener Neustadt, Lower Austria are revised. The material, probably belonging to a single individual, includes a right dentary (lectotype of Iguanodon suessi Bunzel, 1871, designated herein), teeth, a fragmentary parietal, fragments of scapula, ?radius, femur, tibia, two vertebrae (lost) and a manual ungual.The lectotype dentary does not provide clear autapomorphies or sufficient diagnostic features to determine its position within the Rhabdodontidae at generic level. By this “Iguanodon suessi” Bunzel, 1871 and the genus “Mochlodon” Seeley, 1881, to which it was latter referred as type species, cannot be characterized sufficiently by differential diagnosis and these are best considered nomina dubia. Based upon combined character comparisons (mainly postcranial features) the Muthmannsdorf ornithopod is referred herein to Zalmoxes Weishampel, Jianu, Csiki and Norman, 2003, a genus so far known from the late Maastrichtian of Romania. It probably but not evidently represents a yet unnamed species, most closely related to Zalmoxes shqiperorum Weishampel, Jianu, Csiki and Norman, 2003. At the present state of knowledge the Austrian material is not further diagnostic at the species level and kept in open nomenclature as Zalmoxes sp.     

Picasso-Hund - ein neuer Name für Lycaon pictus?

Lycaon pictus has been named by a variety of common names, such as “African Wild Dog”, “African Hunting Dog” and their adequates in other languages. The article summarizes the history of naming in that species concluding with a new recommendation by the SSP as well as the EEP for that species to rename it as Painted Dog. As the translation of that name into German is an unhandy term it is suggested to name it “Picasso-Hund” in that language.     

The role of epibotic bacteria from the surface of the soft coral Dendronephthya sp. in the inhibition of larval settlement

It has been suggested that bacteria associated with soft-bodied organisms are suggested to produce bioactive compounds against the attachment of invertebrate larvae and bacteria onto the surface of these organisms. Our recent study has demonstrated that epibiotic bacteria from the surface of the soft coral Dendronephthya sp. (Coelenterata: Octocoralia, Alcyonacea) inhibit the growth of bacteria commonly found in marine natural biofilms. In the present study, the effect of 11 epibiotic bacteria isolated from the surface of Dendronephthya sp. on larval settlement of the tubeworms Hydroides elegans was examined using laboratory bioassay. Among 11 bacterial isolates, 2 strains (18%) inhibited the larval settlement of H. elegans (Haswell), 4 strains (36%) were “inductive” to larvae and the remaining 5 strains (46%) were “non-inductive”. There was no correlation between the antifouling activities of bacterial isolates and their phylogenetic origin, i.e. closely related bacterial strains showed different effects on larval settlement of H. elegans. When all “inductive”, “non-inductive” and “inhibitive” bacterial isolates were mixed in a 1:1:1 ratio, the effect of the resultant multispecies film on larval settlement became “inhibitive”. Waterborne compounds of Vibrio sp. and an unidentified α-Proteobacterium, which suppressed the settlement of H. elegans and Bugula neritina (L.) larvae, were further investigated using size fractionation and bioassay-guided enzymatic analysis. It was found that antilarval settlement compounds from these bacteria were heat-stable polysaccharides with a molecular weight >100 kDa. The results indicate that the bacteria associated with the soft coral Dendronephthya sp. may contribute to the antifouling mechanisms of the soft-bodied organisms by producing compounds that are against bacterial growth and settlement of macrofoulers on the surface of their host.     

Taxonomical status and phylogenetic relations between the “thomasi” and “atticus” chromosomal races of the underground vole Microtus thomasi (Rodentia, Arvicolinae)

Laboratory crosses among wild caught individuals of the chromosomal races “atticus” and “thomasi”, were performed to analyze the degree of interracial reproductive isolation. The fertility of the studied specimens was evaluated by taking into consideration the reproductive success, the litter size and performing comparative histological examination of the testicular material. All studied populations were submitted to classical cytogenetic and mitochondrial analysis (cytochrome b gene), providing new evidences to the potential phylogenetic relations and taxonomical status of the two chromosomal races. The previously described “atticus” populations are divided in two genetically distinct, geographically and reproductively isolated lineages (2.9% total and 2.4% net divergence), which probably derived from different glacial refugia of Southern Greece. Here, we suggest that the lineage, consisting of the populations from Attiki and Evia Island, should be distinguished as a valid species, named Microtus atticus, including the two chromosomal races “atticus” and “evia”. On the contrary, the ex-“atticus” populations from North Peloponnesus belong to the same mitochondrial lineage with the other Microtus thomasi populations and should be considered as a chromosomal polymorphism inside the chromosomal race “thomasi”.     

Semicircular canal system in early primates

Mammals with more rapid and agile locomotion have larger semicircular canals relative to body mass than species that move more slowly. Measurements of semicircular canals in extant mammals with known locomotor behaviours can provide a basis for testing hypotheses about locomotion in fossil primates that is independent of postcranial remains, and a means of reconstructing locomotor behaviour in species known only from cranial material. Semicircular canal radii were measured using ultra high resolution X-ray CT data for 9 stem primates (“plesiadapiforms”; n = 11), 7 adapoids (n = 12), 4 omomyoids (n = 5), and the possible omomyoid Rooneyia viejaensis (n = 1). These were compared with a modern sample (210 species including 91 primates) with known locomotor behaviours. The predicted locomotor agilities for extinct primates generally follow expectations based on known postcrania for those taxa. “Plesiadapiforms” and adapids have relatively small semicircular canals, suggesting they practiced less agile locomotion than other fossil primates in the sample, which is consistent with reconstructions of them as less specialized for leaping. The derived notharctid adapoids (excluding Cantius) and all omomyoids sampled have relatively larger semicircular canals, suggesting that they were more agile, with Microchoerus in particular being reconstructed as having had very jerky locomotion with relatively high magnitude accelerations of the head. Rooneyia viejaensis is reconstructed as having been similarly agile to omomyids and derived notharctid adapoids, which suggests that when postcranial material is found for this species it will exhibit features for some leaping behaviour, or for a locomotor mode requiring a similar degree of agility.     

Improvement of yield of Pleurotus eryngii var. eryngii by substrate supplementation and use of a casing overlay

Improved yield and biological efficiency (BE) of Pleurotus eryngii var. eryngii were achieved by supplementation of substrate with a commercial delayed-release nutrient and use of a casing overlay. Yield increases of 14% were achieved from cased substrates that were supplemented at time of casing with delayed-release nutrient (Remo’s). Use of a casing layer enhanced yield by 141% over non-cased substrates. When casing and substrate supplementation were combined, yield increased 179% over non-cased/non-supplemented substrates. Mushrooms harvested from cased substrates were darker in color and solids contents were lower compared to non-cased substrates. An additional break of mushrooms was harvested from non-cased “spent” substrate by fragmenting and re-supplementing the substrate prior to the application of a casing overlay. Three production methods were compared for their effect on mushroom yield: “standard”, “casing” and “casing after first break”. Casing of the substrate before first break (“casing” production method) resulted in the highest yield and biological efficiency.     

A novel fluorescent timer based on bicistronic expression strategy in Caenorhabditis elegans

Fluorescent timers are useful tools for studying the spatial and temporal cellular or molecular events. Based on the trans-splicing mechanism in Caenorhabditis elegans, we constructed a “fluorescent timer” through bicistronic expression of two fluorescent proteins with different maturation times. When used in vivo, this “timer” changes its color over time and therefore can be used to monitor the activity of the targeted promoters in C. elegans. Using this “timer”, we have successfully traced the time-dependent activity of myo-3 promoter which drives expression in body wall muscle and vulval muscle. We found that the myo-3 promoter started to be active about 7 h after egg-laying and sustained its activity in the following hatching process. We have also determined the myo-3 promoter activity during larval development by this “timer”. We anticipate that more new “fluorescent timers” with variable time-resolution could be designed by bicistronic expression of different fluorescent protein pairs.     

Pitfalls in comparisons of genetic distances: a case study of the avian family Acrocephalidae

Genetic distances are increasingly being used for identification and species delimitation, especially since the introduction of “barcoding”. While for phylogenetic inferences great care is generally taken to choose the best-fit evolutionary model, this is usually neglected in calculating genetic distances. Moreover, distances obtained from others than best-fit models, different lengths of sequences, and even different loci are often freely compared. We examined the influence of different methods on calculating genetic distances using mitochondrial cytochrome b sequences for the passerine family Acrocephalidae.We found substantial differences between: (1) corrected distances based on the best-fit model (TrN + Γ) vs. uncorrected p-distances; (2) distances calculated based on different parts of the same gene; and (3) distances calculated using the methods of “complete deletion” vs. “pairwise deletion” for sequences that included uncertain nucleotides. All these methodological differences affected comparisons between species and potential taxonomical conclusions.We suggest that (1) different loci are incomparable. (2) Only perfectly homologous regions (same length, same part of locus) should be compared. (3) In the case of sequences with some uncertain nucleotides, only distances calculated by the method of “complete deletion” are fully comparable. (4) Only distances based on the optimal substitution model should be used. (5) Even within the same locus, corrected genetic distances are unique to the study in which they are calculated, as they are conditional on the particular dataset and model selected for that dataset.     

The complex interactions between host immunity and non-biotrophic fungal pathogens of wheat leaves

Significant progress has been made in elucidating the mechanisms used by plants to recognize pathogens and activate “immune” responses. A “first line” of defense can be triggered through recognition of conserved Pathogen or Microbe Associated Molecular Patterns (PAMPs or MAMPs), resulting in activation of basal (or non-host) plant defenses, referred to as PAMP-triggered immunity (PTI). Disease resistance responses can also subsequently be triggered via gene-for-gene type interactions between pathogen avirulence effector genes and plant disease resistance genes (Avr-R), giving rise to effector triggered immunity (ETI). The majority of the conceptual advances in understanding these systems have been made using model systems, such as Arabidopsis, tobacco, or tomato in combination with biotrophic pathogens that colonize living plant tissues. In contrast, how these disease resistance mechanisms interact with non-biotrophic (hemibiotrophic or necrotrophic) fungal pathogens that thrive on dying host tissue during successful infection, is less clear. Several lines of recent evidence have begun to suggest that these organisms may actually exploit components of plant immunity in order to infect, successfully colonize and reproduce within host tissues. One underlying mechanism for this strategy has been proposed, which has been referred to as effector triggered susceptibility (ETS). This review aims to highlight the complexity of interactions between plant recognition and defense activation towards non-biotrophic pathogens, with particular emphasis on three important fungal diseases of wheat (Triticum aestivum) leaves.     

Efficient germ-line transformation of the economically important pest species Lucilia cuprina and Lucilia sericata (Diptera, Calliphoridae)

The green blowfly species Lucilia cuprina and Lucilia sericata are economically important pests for the sheep industries of Australia and New Zealand. L. cuprina has long been considered a good target for a genetic pest management program. In addition, L. sericata maggots are used in the cleaning of wounds and necrotic tissue of patients suffering from ulcers that are difficult to treat by other methods. Development of efficient transgenesis methods would greatly facilitate the development of strains ideal for genetic control programs or could potentially improve “maggot therapy”. We have previously reported the germ-line transformation of L. cuprina and the design of a “female killing system” that could potentially be applied to this species. However, the efficiency of transformation obtained was low and transformed lines were difficult to detect due to the low expression of the EGFP marker used. Here we describe an efficient and reliable method for germ-line transformation of L. cuprina using new piggyBac vector and helper plasmids containing the strong promoter from the L. cuprina hsp83 gene to drive expression of the transposase and fluorescent protein marker gene. We also report, for the first time, the germ-line transformation of L. sericata using the new piggyBac vector/helper combination.     

Evolution of the tRNA gene family in mitochondrial genomes of five Meretrix clams (Bivalvia,Veneridae)

In contrast to the extreme conservation of nuclear-encoded tRNAs, organization of the mitochondrial (mt) tRNA gene family in invertebrates is highly dynamic and rapidly evolving. While gene duplication and loss, gene isomerism, recruitment, and rearrangements have occurred sporadically in several invertebrate lineages, little is known regarding the pattern of their evolution. Comparisons of invertebrate mt genomes at a generic level can be extremely helpful in investigating evolutionary patterns of variation, as intermediate stages of the process may be identified. Variation of mitochondrial tRNA organization among Meretrix clams provides good materials to investigate mt tRNA evolution. We characterized the complete mt genome of the lyrate Asiatic hard clam Meretrix lyrata, re-annotated tRNAs of four previously sequenced Meretrix clams, and undertook an intensive comparison of tRNA gene families in these clams. Our results 1) provide evidence that the commonly observed duplication of trnM may have occurred independently in different bivalve lineages and, based on the higher degree of trnM gene similarity, may have occurred more recently than expected; 2) suggest that “horizontal” evolution may have played an important role in tRNA gene family evolution based on frequent gene duplications and gene recruitment events; and 3) reveal the first case of isoacceptor “vertical” tRNA gene recruitment (VTGR) and present the first clear evidence that VTGR allows rapid evolution of tRNAs. We identify the trnS^− UCR gene in Meretrix clams, previously considered missing in this lineage, and speculate that trnS^− UCR lacking the D-arm in both M. lyrata and Meretrix lamarckii may represent the ancestral status. Phylogenetic analysis based on 13 concatenate protein-coding genes provided opportunities to detect rapidly evolved tRNA genes via VTGR and gene isomerism processes. This study suggests that evolution of the mt tRNA gene family in bivalves is more complex than previously thought and that comparison of several congeneric species is a useful strategy in investigating evolutionary patterns and dynamics of mt tRNA genes.     

Effects of bleaching on the pharmacological and toxicological activities elicited by the aqueous extracts prepared from two “fire corals” collected in the Mexican Caribbean

Hydrocorals of the genus Millepora are abundant skeleton-forming inhabitants of coral reefs around the world. These species are popularly known as “fire corals” since contact with them causes severe pain, skin eruptions and blisters as a result of the release of unidentified toxins. Millepora species associate with photosynthetic dinoflagellates of the genus Symbiodinium (“zooxanthellae”), and up to now the role of these symbionts in the toxic effects induced by the “fire corals” is unknown. In this study, we compared the hemolytic, vasoconstrictor, and phospholipase A₂ (PLA₂) activities of the crude aqueous extracts prepared from normal and bleached specimens of two hydrocorals collected in the Mexican Caribbean, Milleporaalcicornis and Millepora complanata. Electrophoretic analysis revealed some differences between the protein profiles of the extracts prepared from normal and bleached specimens. Bleaching decreased, but not abolished, the hemolytic effect induced by the hydrocorals extracts and the phospholipase A₂ activity of M. complanata extract. Furthermore, it did not modify the enzymatic activity of M. alcicornis extract and vasoconstriction elicited by both extracts. Our results suggest that the presence of the symbionts does not importantly influence the pharmacological and toxic effects induced by Millepora ssp. extracts, and indicate that cnidarians are the main source of the bioactive compounds.     

Ampelozyziphus amazonicus Ducke (Rhamnaceae), a medicinal plant used to prevent malaria in the Amazon Region, hampers the development of Plasmodium berghei sporozoites

Most medicinal plants used against malaria in endemic areas aim to treat the acute symptoms of the disease such as high temperature fevers with periodicity and chills. In some endemic areas of the Brazilian Amazon region one medicinal plant seems to be an exception: Ampelozyziphus amazonicus, locally named “Indian beer” or “Saracura-mira”, used to prevent the disease when taken daily as a cold suspension of powdered dried roots. In previous work we found no activity of the plant extracts against malaria blood parasites in experimentally infected animals (mice and chickens) or in cultures of Plasmodium falciparum. However, in infections induced by sporozoites, chickens treated with plant extracts were partially protected against Plasmodium gallinaceum and showed reduced numbers of exoerythrocytic forms in the brain. We now present stronger evidence that the ethanolic extract of “Indian beer” roots hampers in vitro and in vivo development of Plasmodium berghei sporozoites, a rodent malaria parasite. Some mice treated with high doses of the plant extract did not become infected after sporozoite inoculation, whereas others had a delayed prepatent period and lower parasitemia. Our data validates the use of “Indian beer” as a remedy for malaria prophylaxis in the Amazon, where the plant exists and the disease represents an important problem which is difficult to control. Studies aiming to identify the active compounds responsible for the herein described causal prophylactic activity are needed and may lead to a new antimalarial prophylactic.     

Merychippus (Mammalia, Perissodactyla, Equidae) from the Middle Miocene of state of Oaxaca, southeastern Mexico

Mexican material referable to Merychippus from two localities in eastern Oaxaca was described first nearly 50 years ago. Subsequent work there and in Central Oaxaca, spanning some 30 years, has allowed to establish the detail stratigraphy in both regions, and assembled a collection of merychippine material from the Matatlán (Central Oaxaca) and El Camarón (eastern Oaxaca) Formations, both K-Ar dated ~15 Ma (late early Barstovian). Detailed taxonomic analysis of this collection indicate the presence of two subhypsodont horse species referable to “Merychippus” cf. “M.” primus and “M.” cf. “M.” sejunctus in both regions. These records document the coexistence in tropical southern North America of basal and hipparionine affinity merychippine grade species, and provide a glimpse in to the diversity of subhypsodont equids in this region.     

New primate first metatarsals from the Paleogene of Egypt and the origin of the anthropoid big toe

The specialized grasping feet of primates, and in particular the nature of the hallucal grasping capabilities of living strepsirrhines and tarsiers (i.e., ‘prosimians’), have played central roles in the study of primate origins. Prior comparative studies of first metatarsal (Mt1) morphology have documented specialized characters in living prosimians that are indicative of a more abducted hallux, which in turn is often inferred to be related to an increased ability for powerful grasping. These include a well-developed peroneal process and a greater angle of the proximal articular surface relative to the long axis of the diaphysis. Although known Mt1s of fossil prosimians share these characters with living non-anthropoid primates, Mt1 morphology in the earliest crown group anthropoids is not well known. Here we describe two Mt1s from the Fayum Depression of Egypt - one from the latest Eocene (from the ∼34 Ma Quarry L-41), and one from the later early Oligocene (from the ∼29-30 Ma Quarry M) - and compare them with a sample of extant and fossil primate Mt1s. Multivariate analyses of Mt1 shape variables indicate that the Fayum specimens are most similar to those of crown group anthropoids, and likely belong to the stem catarrhines Catopithecus and Aegyptopithecus specifically, based on analyses of size. Also, phylogenetic analyses with 16 newly defined Mt1 characters support the hypotheses that “prosimian”-like Mt1 features evolved along the primate stem lineage, while crown anthropoid Mt1 morphology and function is derived among primates, and likely differed from that of basal stem anthropoids. The derived loss of powerful hallucal grasping as reflected in the Mt1 morphology of crown anthropoids may reflect long-term selection for improved navigation of large-diameter, more horizontal branches at the expense of movement in smaller, more variably inclined branches in the arboreal environment.     

Leaf essential oil composition of 10 species of Ocotea (Lauraceae) from Monteverde,Costa Rica

The leaf essential oils of 10 species of Ocotea (Lauraceae) from Monteverde, Costa Rica (Ocotea floribunda, Ocotea holdridgeana, Ocotea meziana, Ocotea sinuata, Ocotea tonduzii, Ocotea valeriana, Ocotea veraguensis, Ocotea whitei, and two undescribed species, Ocotea new species “los llanos”, and Ocotea new species “small leaf”) have been obtained by hydrodistillation and analyzed by GC–MS in order to discern the differences and similarities between the volatile chemical compositions of these species. The principal common constituents of the 10 species of Ocotea were α-pinene, β-pinene, β-caryophyllene, and germacrene-D.     

Molluscan mobile elements similar to the vertebrate Recombination-Activating Genes

Animal genomes contain ∼20,000 genes. Additionally millions of genes for antigen receptors are generated in cells of the immune system from the sets of separate gene segments by a mechanism known as the V(D)J somatic recombination. The components of the V(D)J recombination system, Recombination-Activating Gene proteins (RAG1 and RAG2) and recombination signal sequence (RSS), are thought to have “entered” the vertebrate genome as a hypothetical “RAG transposon”. Recently discovered mobile elements have terminal inverted repeats (TIRs) similar to RSS and may encode proteins with a different degree of similarity to RAG1. We describe a novel N-RAG-TP transposon identified from the sea slug Aplysia californica that encodes a protein similar to the N-terminal part of RAG1 in vertebrates. This refines the “RAG transposon” hypothesis and allows us to propose a scenario for V(D)J recombination machinery evolution from a relic transposon related to the existing mobile elements N-RAG-TP, Chapaev, and Transib.     

The phylogenetic and ecological context of cultured and whole genome-sequenced planktonic bacteria from the coastal NW Mediterranean Sea

Microbial isolates are useful models for physiological and ecological studies and can also be used to reassemble genomes from metagenomic analyses. However, the phylogenetic diversity that can be found among cultured marine bacteria may vary significantly depending on the isolation. Therefore, this study describes a set of 136 bacterial isolates obtained by traditional isolation techniques from the Blanes Bay Microbial Observatory, of which seven strains have had the whole genome sequenced. The complete set was compared to a series of environmental sequences obtained by culture-independent techniques (60 DGGE sequences and 303 clone library sequences) previously obtained by molecular methods. In this way, each isolate was placed in both its “ecological” (time of year, nutrient limitation, chlorophyll and temperature values) context or setting, and its “phylogenetic” landscape (i.e. similar organisms that were found by culture-independent techniques, when they were relevant, and when they appeared). Nearly all isolates belonged to the Gammaproteobacteria, Alphaproteobacteria, or the Bacteroidetes (70, 40 and 20 isolates, respectively). Rarefaction analyses showed similar diversity patterns for sequences from isolates and molecular approaches, except for Alphaproteobacteria where cultivation retrieved a higher diversity per unit effort. Approximately 30% of the environmental clones and isolates formed microdiversity clusters constrained at 99% 16S rRNA gene sequence identity, but the pattern was different in Bacteroidetes (less microdiversity) than in the other main groups. Seventeen cases (12.5%) of nearly complete (98–100%) rRNA sequence identity between isolates and environmental sequences were found: nine in the Alphaproteobacteria, five in the Gammaproteobacteria, and three in the Bacteroidetes, indicating that cultivation could be used to obtain at least some organisms representative of the various taxa detected by molecular methods. Collectively, these results illustrated the largely unexplored potential of culturing on standard media for complementing the study of microbial diversity by culture-independent techniques and for obtaining phylogenetically distinct model organisms from natural seawater.     

Phylogenetic relationships among Southeast Asian climbing bamboos (Poaceae: Bambusoideae) and the Bambusa complex

A phylogenetic analysis of Bambusa and allies based on the plastid DNA non-coding regions rps16-trnQ, trnC-rpoB, trnH-psbA and trnD-T, and a partial nuclear GBSSI gene, was carried out. This included representatives from all four Bambusa subgenera (including type species), a group of segregate Southeast Asian genera distinctive by their climbing–scrambling culms (Dinochloa, Holttumochloa, Kinabaluchloa, Maclurochloa, Soejatmia, Sphaerobambos), and two other Bambusinae genera (Dendrocalamus, Gigantochloa). The results do not support the present subgeneric classification of Bambusa. The climbing Southeast Asian genera, all of which include species previously placed in Bambusa, are distinct from the “core Bambusa group” (type species and alliance) and the Bambusa complex generally.