The actin cytoskeleton in ageing and apoptosis

Regulated cell death, or apoptosis, has evolved to fulfil a myriad of functions amongst multicellular organisms. It is now apparent that programmed cell death occurs in unicellular organisms such as yeast. In yeast, as in higher eukaryotes, the actin cytoskeleton is an essential component of a number of cellular activities, and many of the regulatory proteins involved are highly conserved. Recent evidence from diverse eukaryotic systems suggests that the actin cytoskeleton has a role in regulating apoptosis via interactions with the mitochondria. This interaction also appears to have a significant impact on the management of oxidative stress and so cellular ageing. In this mini-review we summarise some of the work, which suggests that actin is a key regulator of apoptosis and ageing in eukaryotic cells.     

在自然衰老和诱导条件下棉花悬浮细胞程序性死亡的发生

Cotton suspension cells grew well in the MS medium supplemented with 0.1 mg/L 2,4 D and 0.1 mg/L KT. Senescence occurred when the cells were unsubcultured. The cells began to lose their viabilities on the 17th day, and on the 21th day oligonucleosomal sized DNA fragments ( DNA ladder) could be detected. Oligonucleosomal sized DNA fragments ( DNA ladder) was the hallmark of the programmed cell death. Programmed cell death of cotton suspension cells could be induced respectively by some stress factors which included heatshock (42+/-3 degrees C for 8 hours), 10 micromol/L camptothecin, 20 micromol/L fumonisin B1 and 50 mmol/L cycloheximide. The cotton suspension cells which grew in the MS medium supplemented with 0.1 mg/L 2,4 D and 0.1 mg/L KT differred physiologically from the cells in the MS medium supplemented with 0.1 mg/L IBA and 0.1 mg/L KT, and they responded differentially to the heatshock, 10 micromol/L camptothecin and 20 micromol/L fumonisin B1, while the same to 50 mmol/L cycloheximide.     

在自然衰老和诱导条件下棉花悬浮细胞程序性死亡的发生

棉花胚性悬浮细胞在MS 0.1mg/L2,4-D 0.1mg/LKT培养基中培养生长良好,但在不继代的情况下会自然衰老。培养至第17天,细胞生活力开始下降;至第21天可检测到核小体大小倍增的DNA梯(DNALadder)存在。42±3℃热激、10μmol/L喜树碱、20μmol/L串珠镰孢菌毒素和50mmol/L放线菌酮等胁迫诱导可分别引起MS 0.1mg/L2,4-D 0.1mg/LKT培养基中的棉花悬浮细胞发生程序性死亡。在MS 0.1mg/L2,4-D 0.1mg/LKT和MS 0.1mg/LIBA 0.1mg/LKT培养基中悬浮培养的棉花胚性细胞处于不同的生理状态,两种不同状态的棉花悬浮细胞对热激、喜树碱、串珠镰孢菌毒素等胁迫因子的反应不同。     

Autophagy and cell death

Autophagy exerts dual functions in cancer, acting as both a tumor suppressor, for example, by preventing the accumulation of damaged proteins and organelles, and as a tumor promoter that supports tumor growth. Many anticancer therapies engage autophagy as part of a cellular response. However, the question of whether or not autophagic activity in cells undergoing cell death is the cause of death or whether it is actually an attempt to support survival in response to cellular stress conditions has been discussed with great controversy.     

Caspase-like proteases and their role in programmed cell death in plants

The investigations performed over recent few years have proved the existence of caspase-like proteases in plants. Three groups of caspase-like proteases: metacaspases, legumain family proteases (VPEs) and saspases have been identified and characterized in plants so far. A considerable amount of evidence supports the role of these enzymes in programmed cell death (PCD) occurring during plant development, their organ senescence as well as hypersensitive response (HR) after pathogen attack. Current knowledge of these enzyme molecular and biochemical structures is summarized in the paper. The homology of caspase-like proteases to animal caspases has been also indicated. Some future perspectives of research concerning the signal pathway during PCD, the regulation of activity and mode of action of these proteases are presented in the article.     

细胞自噬与肿瘤耐药

细胞自噬是一种细胞自我降解的过程,在适应代谢应激、保持基因组完整性及维持内环境稳定方面发挥重要作用. 在肿瘤治疗中,凋亡耐受是产生肿瘤耐药的重要机制. 细胞自噬可防止抗肿瘤药诱导的凋亡,促进肿瘤耐药. 然而,自噬性细胞死亡可能是凋亡耐受肿瘤细胞的一种死亡方式. 因此,细胞自噬对肿瘤细胞的耐药性有双重影响. 本文综述了细胞自噬的分子机制、细胞自噬与凋亡的关系、细胞自噬与肿瘤耐药以及治疗的主要研究进展.     

泛素与自噬

泛素调节的蛋白质降解过程和细胞的自噬现象都是细胞自我调节的基本机制。其中,泛素可能作为一种普遍的识别信号参与了白噬过程;而自噬的诱导又能促进泛素化作用,从而增强对底物的降解。本文着重探讨这两者间的关系及可能存在的相互调节作用,并兼及两者共同涉及的细胞程序性死亡现象。     

Die and let live – programmed cell death in plants

Cysteine and serine proteases are prominent players in the control of developmental and pathogen-activated cell deaths in plants. Ethylene, salicylic acid, the small G-protein Rac, calcium and reactive oxygen species are recurring mediators of death signaling. Lastly, the mitochondrion has emerged in both plant and animal systems as a ‘central depot’ that interprets multiple signals and in some instances determines the fate of the cell.     

Interplay between autophagy and programmed cell death in mammalian neural stem cells

Mammalian neural stem cells (NSCs) are of particular interest because of their role in brain development and function. Recent findings suggest the intimate involvement of programmed cell death (PCD) in the turnover of NSCs. However, the underlying mechanisms of PCD are largely unknown. Although apoptosis is the best-defined form of PCD, accumulating evidence has revealed a wide spectrum of PCD encompassing apoptosis, autophagic cell death (ACD) and necrosis. This mini-review aims to illustrate a unique regulation of PCD in NSCs. The results of our recent studies on autophagic death of adult hippocampal neural stem (HCN) cells are also discussed. HCN cell death following insulin withdrawal clearly provides a reliable model that can be used to analyze the molecular mechanisms of ACD in the larger context of PCD. More research efforts are needed to increase our understanding of the molecular basis of NSC turnover under degenerating conditions, such as aging, stress and neurological diseases. Efforts aimed at protecting and harnessing endogenous NSCs will offer novel opportunities for the development of new therapeutic strategies for neuropathologies. [BMB Reports 2013; 46(8): 383-390]     

Control of muscle degeneration following autotomy of a hindleg in the grasshopper,Barytettix humphreysii

When the grasshopper, Barrytettix humphreysii, sheds a hindlimb during autotomy, certain thoracic muscles degenerate although they are neither directly damaged nor denervated. Muscle degeneration is induced when a leg nerve (N5) that does not innervate the thoracic muscles is severed. Together these results suggest that transneuronal mechanisms influence muscle survival. To further characterize this autotomy-induced process, we studied the degeneration of a thoracic tergotrochanteral muscle (M#133b,c) following autotomy or experimental manipulation in adult animals. Its degeneration is correlated with reduced activity of its neural input and occurs by programmed cell death (PCD). PCD onset is variable between individual muscle fibers, indicating that the trigger of degeneration is fiber specific. Muscle degeneration appears to be triggered by the loss of proprioceptive input from the autotomized limb, since severing of axons from proprioceptive organs, but not exteroceptive chemo- or mechanoreceptors, leads to muscle degeneration. Muscle disuse, neuronal degeneration, or changes in juvenile hormone titer do not appear to play a role in autotomy-induced degeneration. We propose that the loss of proprioceptive input from proximal campaniform sensilla on the tibia deafferents the thoracic muscle motor neurons and leads to a decrease in their activity. Muscle degeneration is ultimately triggered by the loss of normal neural activity.     

Ceramide Induces Apoptosis to Immature Cerebellar Granule Cells in Culture

A recent study revealed that ceramide acts as a second messenger in the sphingomyelin pathway and thus plays an important regulatory role in programmed cell death (apoptosis) to cell the lines induced by tumor-necrosis factor (TNF)- and interleukin (IL)-1, although its effect remains controversial regarding primary neuronal culture. We investigated the effect of a cell-permeable ceramide analog (C₂-ceramide) on cultures of cerebellar granule cells, which is thought to have active sphingomyelin pathway during development. The presence of C₂-ceramide decreased the number of cerebellar granule cells (CGCs) in a concentration-dependent manner when added at DIV 1 (1 day in vitro). The ED₅₀ was 60 M. After DIV2, CGCs became less sensitive to C₂-ceramide and the ED₅₀ was 200 M at DIV 7. DNA staining with Hoechst 33258 showed the morphology of apoptotic nuclei in the degenerating neurons. Internucleosomal DNA degradation could also be observed by gel electrophoresis. Protein and RNA synthesis inhibitors prevented the death of neurons. C₂-dihydroceramide, which lacks the 4–5 trans double bond and failed to induce neuronal death. These results thus demonstrated that C₂-ceramide induces apoptosis to the CGCs at the early stage in vitro, however the CGCs were found to be less sensitive to C₂-ceramide at the later stage in vitro.     

环境因子诱导的植物细胞程序性死亡

细胞发生程序性死亡（Programmed cell death,PCD）是多细胞生物用以消除多余的或有害的细胞的一种重要方式。对于植物个体来说,细胞发生程序性死亡（PCD）是抵抗逆境的一种十分有效的途径。因此,揭示环境因子诱导的植物PCD现象的分子本质就具有十分重要的现实意义。近十年来,有关环境因子诱导的植物PCD研究报道逐年增加。本文重点综述了环境因子与植物PCD相关的研究进展,并对植物PCD的主要生物学意义和研究展望进行了讨论。     

植物细胞程序性死亡研究进展

植物细胞死亡分为坏死和程序性死亡。细胞程序性死亡是具有信号或一系列分子参与,并且由细胞内在的死亡程序介导的有序过程。它在植物生长发育和抵御外界胁迫中具有重要作用。简要介绍了植物PCD的特征,对植物PCD中的信号分子和类caspase的作用等进行了综述,并对植物PCD存在的问题进行分析和展望,为深入研究植物PCD提供参考。     

植物细胞程序性死亡分子机制和信号转导

细胞程序化死亡(PCD)在植物的发育、抗病及植物与环境互作等过程中发挥着极其重要的作用.总结了植物细胞凋亡发生的特征及其检测技术,概括了植细胞凋亡的分子机制,综述了植物细胞凋亡相关激素种类及其信号转导机制,并对植物细胞凋亡存在的问题进行分析和展望.     

Programmed cell death in intervertebral disc degeneration

Intervertebral disc (IVD) degeneration is largely a process of destruction and failure of the extracellular matrix (ECM), and symptomatic IVD degeneration is thought to be one of the leading causes of morbidity or life quality deterioration in the elderly. To date, however, the mechanism of IVD degeneration is still not fully understood. Cellular loss from cell death in the process of IVD degeneration has long been confirmed and considered to contribute to ECM degradation, but the causes and the manners of IVD cell death remain unclear. Programmed cell death (PCD) is executed by an active cellular process and is extensively involved in many physiological and pathological processes, including embryonic development and human degenerative diseases. Thus, the relationship between PCD and IVD degeneration has become a new research focus of interest in recent years. By reviewing the available literature concentrated on PCD in IVD and discussing the methodology of detecting PCD in IVD cells, its inducing factors, the relationship of cell death to ECM degradation, and the potential therapy for IVD degeneration by modulation of PCD, we conclude that IVD cells undergo PCD via different signal transduction pathways in response to different stimuli, that PCD may play a role in the process of IVD degeneration, and that modulation of PCD might be a potential therapeutic strategy for IVD degeneration.     

环境因子诱导的植物细胞程序性死亡

细胞发生程序性死亡(Programmed cell death,PCD)是多细胞生物用以消除多余的或有害的细胞的一种重要方式。对于植物个体来说,细胞发生程序性死亡(PCD)是抵抗逆境的一种十分有效的途径。因此,揭示环境因子诱导的植物PCD现象的分子本质就具有十分重要的现实意义。近十年来,有关环境因子诱导的植物PCD研究报道逐年增加。本文重点综述了环境因子与植物PCD相关的研究进展,并对植物PCD的主要生物学意义和研究展望进行了讨论。