Longitudinal analysis of length growth in the chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes)

The adolescent growth spurt in linear dimension in humans is considered to be unique among mammals, but few comparative studies have been done, even on chimpanzees. Growth of the summed length of crown to rump, thigh, and leg was studied longitudinally in 12 chimpanzees. We took body weight growth and reproductive maturation into consideration. Reproductive maturation was monitored by the swelling of sexual skin and menarche in females, and by testicular development in males. We applied two relationships found in humans between body length growth and the environment to the chimpanzees. The first relationship was the robustness of the growth spurt, meaning that the spurt is absent only in individuals under the most severe environmental pressure. Subjects maturing in a favorable or even mediocre environment are anticipated to show the growth spurt. The second relationship was catch-up growth, where, when the environment is ameliorated, growth may be accelerated to attain the target size. Catch-up growth at the end of the juvenile period may mimic the adolescent growth spurt. Results showed that subjects living under favorable conditions did not exhibit a growth spurt, and that it was only the subjects who had delayed growth in the juvenile period that showed a spurt in adolescence, the period when reproductive maturation occurred. Although we have concluded that chimpanzees do not have an adolescent growth spurt, except in cases of catch-up growth, this does not mean that they have a different growth pattern from that of humans. The absence of a growth spurt may be associated with adaptations to chimpanzee patrilineal society, where adolescent males are incorporated into the adult hierarchy at a low rank.     

Effects of Yearly Change in Nut Fruiting on Autumn Home-range Use by <Emphasis Type="Italic">Macaca fuscata</Emphasis> on Kinkazan Island,Northern Japan

Temporal changes in food availability affect foraging success and ultimately reproductive success of animals. They include both seasonal and annual changes. Although many researchers have investigated food availability and the corresponding ranging behavior of primates, studies of yearly changes have been limited. We studied the effects of the fruiting of nuts of Fagus crenata, Zelkova serrata, and Torreya nucifera on the ranging behavior of Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata) in autumn on Kinkazan Island, northern Japan, for 5 yr between 2000 and 2005 (excluding 2003). We divided the study area (3.3 km²) into 100 × 100-m quadrats to assess the distribution of nut-rich quadrats that contained high densities of nut-producing species. The home ranges of the monkeys contained more nut-rich quadrats than expected, and the difference was significant for 3 of 5 yr. Autumn home-range use was also affected by the distribution of nut production, although the effect differed by year: monkeys frequently used nut-rich quadrats in a Zelkova-year (2000) and in 1 Torreya-year (2001), whereas they nonselectively used nut-rich quadrats in 2 Fagus-years (2002 and 2005) and in another Torreya-year (2004). Thus, Japanese macaques flexibly change their autumn ranging behavior according to yearly changes in distribution of nut production.     

Life history of captive gray-cheeked mangabeys: Physical and sexual development

Ontogeny refers to every aspect of the development of an individual. In this respect growth and sexual maturation are useful life-history parameters that can be correlated with developmental features of social behavior. In this paper, I analyze body-weight growth and sexual maturation in captive gray-cheeked mangabeys (Cercocebus albigena). I also describe the development of external morphological characteristics, used as “physical markers.” Body-weight growth is analyzed in 15 males and 7 females. Individual weight velocity curves for animals of both sexes showed an, early peak around 2 years of age. Males had a later growth spurt, peaking between 4 and 6 years of age. Females showed no clear second growth acceleration (spurt), but they experienced an interruption of their weight growth deceleration between 3 and 5 years of age, which is generally coincident with puberty. In females there is a close relationship between weight and the occurrence of the first swelling of their sexual skin. These developmental parameters are compared to those described in baboons and macaques.     

Japanese monkey group translocation: Effects on seasonal breeding

A 150-member troop of Japanese monkeys (Macaca fuscata)was translocated from its temperate native habitat, near Kyoto, Japan, to a 42-ha enclosure near Laredo, Texas, in February 1972. The seasonal timing and distribution of 430 births recorded over the period 1954–1971 were compared to those of 186 births recorded in Texas from 1973 to 1979. Despite striking climatological and environmental differences between the pre- and the postranslocation sites, the timing of the birth season remaines unchanged, although the distribution of births was altered. These findings, considered in light of other published data on the seasonality of mating in macaques, suggest that a phenomenon akin to social drift may account for much of the intertroop variation that occurs.     

Longitudinal somatometrical study on the growth patterns of newborn Japanese monkeys

Growth of Japanese macaques during their first year was analyzed longitudinally, using body measurements. Measurements of 44 somatometrical characters were taken on seven animals. Work with the newborn data produced a formula which fits well. The formula is: y=a (x+b) ⁿ (y=size, x=age). At first, growth was analyzed, character by character, using birth sizes and incremental increases. The results show a major growth pattern for many characters: increments vary inversely with birth size. Application of the growth formula produced two further insights: (1) growth pattern is not so simple as imagined from the birth size-increment pattern; and (2) the characters which deviate from the birth size-increment pattern have large growth only at the earliest period (in few months), in spite of their small size. Sex differences were clear within the first year, especially for characters which differ greatly between adults.     

Age structure,growth and reproduction ofRutilus lemmingii in an intermittent stream of the Guadalquivir river basin,southern Spain

The age, growth and reproduction ofRutilus lemmingii (Steindachner, 1866), an endemic cyprinid from the Iberian Peninsula, was studied for over a period of two years in a small seasonal tributary of the Guadalquivir river basin. Approximately 65 % of the total growth in length occured in the first year of life. Males reached a maximum age of 3+ yr (Fork Length, F.L. = 114 mm) and females 4+ yr (F.L. = 144 mm). Both sexes matured during their second year of life (1 +). The overall sex ratio (334 males to 389 females) differed significantly from unity. Somatic condition decreased markedly during the reproductive period of March to May.R. lemmingii is a multiple spawner and releases two batches of eggs per female each year. Mean egg diameter of the first batch was larger than the second one. The regression between fecundity and Fork Length (mm) was: Fec = 0.014 F.L.Z.^2.858 Compared with available information, thisR. lemmingii population, located at a lower latitude, is characterized by fast growth, early maturity, high level of reproductive effort, and a short life-span. These life-history characteristices are typical of species in unstable environments, where adult mortality is high, variable or unpredictable.     

Studies on the age and growth of the bata,Labeo bata (Ham.) (Cyprinidae,Teleostei) from the river Kali,India

Age and growth of Labeo bata (Ham.) was studied by the analysis of annuli found on the scale and by length-frequency distribution. The fish attained lengths of 131, 194, 236, 277, 314, 341 and 364 mm at the end of the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th, 6th and 7th years of life respectively. The increase in length of scale bears a constant relationship with the increase in length of fish, and regression analysis yielded a straight line between scale and body length. Calculated values could be expressed as: Y = –2.534 + 0.064 XThe growth rate of the fish was found high during the 1st and 2nd years and decreased gradually afterwards till the 7th year. Both sexes showed more a or less similar growth rate and attained a similar longevity. Growth trend of the fish confirmed the von Bertalanffy growth equation: Lt = 450(l–e^{–0.2165(t+0.5963))} The seasonal growth curve was chiefly influenced by feeding intensity in fishes of 1st year class while in adults it was affected by feeding intensity as well as by maturation of the gonads.     

Grooming site preferences determined by lice infection among Japanese macaques in Arashiyama

I investigated the effect of the density of louse eggs (Pedicinus obtusus andP. eurygaster) on grooming site preferences in Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata). Louse eggs were more often found on the outer side of the body (upper back, lower back, outer arms, and outer legs) than on the inner side of the body (chest, belly, inner arms, and inner legs). Japanese macaques were more likely to be groomed on the outer side than the inner side of the body by allogrooming and autogrooming. Such grooming site preferences correlated with the distribution of louse eggs but not with the areas of body parts. Thus, the ecology of lice might affect grooming behavior of Japanese macaques. Five hundred and fifty louse eggs were estimated to parasitize an adult female Japanese macaque. Considering the intrinsic rate of natural increase of lice, monkeys need to be groomed almost every day. This suggests that Japanese macaques need grooming partners and form social bonds with others for everyday grooming.     

The growth kinetics ofB. subtilis

There has been considerable discussion by Kubitschek and Cooper concerning the growth rate of cells ofE. coli throughout the cell cycle. Consequently, it is relevant to test Kubitschek's linear model against the exponential model espoused by Cooper (and many others) with another organism and another technique.Burdett et al. measured, by electron microscopy and computer analysis of the microphotographs, the distribution of lengths of a population of cells ofBacillus subtilis grown in 0.4% succinate in a minimal medium. The data were fitted to the extended Collins-Richmond method of Kirkwood & Burdett which subdivided the cell cycle into several phases. I have taken their results and compared them with the linear and exponential growth models for the entire cell cycle after applying correction to the data for the shape of completed and forming poles; i.e., to put the data on a cell-volume basis instead of a cell-length basis. Most of the correction involves no arbitrary assumptions. The conclusion is that global volume growth rate is nearly proportional to cell volume; i.e. growth ofBacillus subtilis is nearly exponential for almost every cell in the growing culture.     

Positional behavior of free-ranging Japanese macaques (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Macaca fuscata</Emphasis>)

Positional behavior was quantitatively studied in identified free-ranging Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata). Five male and 11 female adults were observed in a forested mountain habitat. Data were analyzed for proportion of bout distance, number and time of each locomotion and postural type. Japanese macaques are semiterrestrial, and mainly walk and run quadrupedally. This supports the notion that Macaca are generally quadrupeds. Sex differences in positional behavior were found in the preference of substrate and types of positional behavior. Males and females tend to be terrestrial and arboreal, respectively. Males leap more frequently and longer in distance than do females when they are feeding in trees. These sex differences are considered to be related to differences in morphology, food choice, social activity, and the nursing of infants. Frequencies of leaping and the distance covered by leaping in Japanese macaques are more than those of long-tailed macaques which are arboreal quadrupeds. However, Japanese macaques leap shorter distances at a time than do long-tailed macaques, which indicates that body size may be related to leaping distance more than the frequency of leaping and the distance covered by leaping. Japanese macaques are not as specialized for terrestrial locomotion as pig-tailed macaques. They use both terrestrial and arboreal supports, and are considered to be semi-terrestrial quadrupeds, somewhere between the arboreal long-tailed macaque and the terrestrial pig-tailed macaque. Electronic Publication     

西双版纳楝径向生长和木质部发生季节动态及其对环境因子的响应

热带森林在全球碳循环过程中起着重要的作用,研究热带树木的生长动态及其对环境因子的响应,有助于预测全球变化下热带森林固碳能力的变化。目前对热带树木径向生长以及木质部发生季节动态的研究相对较少。利用微树芯和生长环法对西双版纳热带植物园内的落叶树种楝(Melia azedarach)2021年的年内径向生长和木质部发生季节动态进行监测,结合环境因子的监测,分析了楝的径向生长过程的驱动因子。结果表明：2021年楝的扩大细胞在3月1日(年积日(DOY):60.2±1.6)开始出现,细胞壁加厚在12月11日(DOY:345.4±3.1)结束,年生长量为7.76 mm,最大生长速率为0.039 mm/d。生长环监测显示,楝在3月18日(DOY:76.6±8.6)左右开始生长,10月13日(DOY:286.4±6.8)生长结束,年径向生长量为(6.25±2.35)mm,最大生长速率为(0.056±0.02)mm/d。楝的径向生长速率与降水(r=0.77,P<0.001)、平均温度(r=0.61,P<0.05)和最低温度(r=0.67,P<0.001)均呈显著正相关,与风速(r=-0....     

Factors Affecting Proximity Among Members of a Wild Group of Moor Macaques During Feeding,Moving, and Resting

We studied the effects of kinship, age, sex, and other factors on patterns of spatial proximity among group members in a wild group of moor macaques (Macaca maurus) in Sulawesi, Indonesia. We assessed the importance of each factor via multiple linear regression analyses. Moor macaques stay close to their matrilineal relatives more frequently when the group moves or rests than when they feed. Subjects of similar age, sex, or rank tended to stay close to each other. Females were in the proximity of females with newborn infants regardless of the phase of activity of the group. Kinship may have less effect on proximity during feeding in moor macaques than in Japanese macaques. Weak effects of kinship during feeding may result from weak contest competition for food within the group.     

Green turtle somatic growth dynamics in a spatially disjunct Great Barrier Reef metapopulation

The growth dynamics of green sea turtles resident in four separate foraging grounds of the southern Great Barrier Reef genetic stock were assessed using a nonparametric regression modeling approach. Juveniles recruit to these grounds at the same size, but grow at foraging-ground-dependent rates that result in significant differences in expected size- or age-at-maturity. Mean age-at-maturity was estimated to vary from 25–50 years depending on the ground. This stock comprises mainly the same mtDNA haplotype, so geographic variability might be due to local environmental conditions rather than genetic factors, although the variability was not a function of latitudinal variation in environmental conditions or whether the food stock was seagrass or algae. Temporal variability in growth rates was evident in response to local environmental stochasticity, so geographic variability might be due to local food stock dynamics. Despite such variability, the expected size-specific growth rate function at all grounds displayed a similar nonmonotonic growth pattern with a juvenile growth spurt at 60–70 cm curved carapace length, (CCL) or 15–20 years of age. Sex-specific growth differences were also evident with females tending to grow faster than similar-sized males after the juvenile growth spurt. It is clear that slow sex-specific growth displaying both spatial and temporal variability and a juvenile growth spurt are distinct growth behaviors of green turtles from this stock.Communicated by Ecological Editor P.F. Sale     

Cranial adaptation to a high attrition diet in Japanese macaques

Primates with diets that require greater occlusal forces to process exhibit anteroposteriorly shorter, vertically deeper faces, more anteriorly placed masseter attachment areas, and broader, taller mandibular corpora compared to closely related species/populations. Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata)eat different, perhaps mechanically tougher to process, foods than other macaques do. Accordingly, they should exhibit structural features of the skull related to dissipating great occlusal loads. To test this hypothesis I compared cranial variables amongst wild-caught, adult female skulls (n = 85) of M. fuscataand three other macaque species (M. mulatta, M. fascicularis,and M. nemestrina)and applied least-squares and reduced-major-axis regression analysis and principal components analysis (PCA) to 17 cranial variables reflecting facial, vault, and mandibular dimensions. When scaled for size, the Japanese macaque has a vertically deeper and anteroposteriorly shorter face,a broader but not taller mandibular corpus, and a more anteriorly placed masseter muscle than the other three macaques do. The first PCA axis isolates variation due to a suite of characters related to mechanical efficiency in dissipating occlusal loads (vertically deep face and broad corpus) and differentiates the Japanese macaques from the other species. This, coupled with reported dietary differences among species, suggests that Japanese macaques are selected for dissipating greater occlusal loads than other macaques are. The presence of a narrow mandible relative to cranial breadth and a hyperrobust mandibular corpus width suggests that axial torsion is a significant influence in the masticatory regime of M. fuscata.The lack of an increase in corpus height indicates that parasagittal bending is not as significant an influence. Geographic and climatic influences cannot account for the patterns of variation between M. fuscataand the other macaques.     

Age changes in plasma IGF-1 concentration in free-ranging Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata)

To obtain fundamental data on the endocrine background for the wild Japanese macaque (Macaca fuscata) growth profiles, we have measured plasma insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) concentrations of free-ranging and open-enclosed Japanese macaques from five different regions in their habitat. General features of the IGF-1 levels in those troops were: 1) an age-dependent increase in the young macaques and 2) distinctively higher values among several adult females. The age changes in IGF-1 levels during the adolescent period in the free-ranging Japanese macaques were similar to those in the caged Japanese macaques.     

Environmental and Social Factors Associated with the Occurrence of Stone-Handling Behavior in a Captive Troop of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Macaca fuscata</Emphasis>

Stone-handling, a documented behavioral tradition in Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata), occurs in both captive and provisioned free-ranging troops. We utilize data systematically collected as part of a broader investigation of stone-handling behavior in a captive troop to elucidate the environmental and social factors responsible for its occurrence. We analyzed contexts of stone-handling over 18 mo to determine under what conditions individuals most often perform it. There is clear seasonal variation in the occurrence of stone-handling. The lowest number and shortest duration of stone-handling bouts were in winter, gradually increasing to a peak in summer, and again decreasing toward autumn. Monkeys stone-handled more on clear sunny days than on cloudy or rainy ones. They displayed the behavior less under stressful conditions caused by human intervention or by aggression among troop members. Such stressful social conditions appeared to decrease individual motivation for stone-handling. In other words, individuals most frequently performed stone-handling under more relaxed environmental and social conditions. The findings are consistent with the hypothesis that stone-handling is a form of solitary object play behavior in macaques.     

Seasonal variation in growth and carrageenan content ofCalliblepharis jubata (Rhodophyceae,Gigartinales) from the Normandy coast,France

Study of the seasonal variation in the quality and content of iota carrageenan inCalliblepharis jubata from the Normandy coast of France shows that seasonal fluctuation of the environment affects the growth and chemical composition of this red alga. Growth increases during winter, when there is little synthesis of carrageenan and floridean starch is accumulated. When inorganic nitrogen content decreases, growth also decreases and stops (May to August); with high light intensity, the metabolism is oriented towards a synthesis of parietal carrageenans to the detriment of the reserve products such as floridean starch.Author for correspondence     

Digesta Passage Time,Digestibility, and Total Gut Fill in Captive Japanese Macaques (<Emphasis Type="BoldItalic">Macaca fuscata</Emphasis>): Effects Food Type and Food Intake Level

Digestion is an important process in understanding the feeding ecology of animals. We examined digesta passage time, digestibility, and total gut fill in Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata; n = 4) under 4 dietary conditions representing the seasonal and regional variations in the diets of wild populations to determine the effects of food type and food intake on these digestive features. Food type is associated with mean retention time (MRT), digestibility, and total gut fill. Dry matter intake (DMI) of food correlates positively with total gut fill but not with MRT or digestibility. Conversely, indigestible DMI affected MRT negatively. Thus, when Japanese macaques consume high-fiber foods, MRT becomes shorter and digestibility is lower than when eating low-fiber foods. Moreover, macaques experience increases in total gut fill when they consume high-fiber diets or a large amount of food. Japanese macaques may excrete difficult-to-digest food components quickly; they nevertheless buffer an increase in food intake by an increase in gut fill. Our study offers new insights into the relationship between feeding ecology and nutritional physiology in primates by simultaneously examining the effects of food type and intake level on MRT and digestibility.     

Variability in the development of mother-infant relationships among free-ranging Japanese macaques

Mother-infant relationships were studied during the infant's first year in free-ranging Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata). Three possible factors controlling the mother-infant relationships were examined using multivariate analysis. Parity was determined to exert the strongest influence on mother-infant relationships. Specifically, during month 1, multiparous mothers showed greater maternal suckling rejection than primiparous mothers, and primparae and multiparae differed in their responses to suckling behavior. During month 6, multiparous mothers prompted independence of their offspring more than primiparous mothers. By month 8, however, parity differences in maternal behavior were substantially reduced. Maternal rank was a less important factor, although during month 1, high-ranking mothers showed greater maternal restriction than low-ranking ones. In the present study, infant gender appeared to have no effect on mother-infant relationships. That most differences were due to parity indicates that mother-infant relations were largely determined by the mothers. This observation conflicts with the “learning-to-mother” hypothesis. Allo-mothering of neonates by nulliparae is rare among Japanese macaques. Primiparous mothers learned appropriate suckling care from handling their own infants.     

Reproductive biology of rhesus and Japanese macaques

This paper offers a comparison of the reproductive biology of the Japanese macaques of Arashiyama, Japan and the free-ranging rhesus macaques of Silver Springs, Florida, U.S.A. The data indicate that rhesus macaques of Silver Springs have a higher reproductive rate than the Japanese macaques of Arashiyama. The reproducive rate of the rhesus monkeys over three birth seasons is 82% and that for the Japanese macaque is 53%. The higher reproductive rate of rhesus monkeys is accomplished through an earlier onset of sexual maturation (4 and 5 years for the rhesus and 5 and 6 years for the Japanese monkeys) and a shorter interbirth interval (14.27±5.54 months for rhesus and 18.00±6.57 months for Japanese monkeys). It is suggested that, because of the relatively harsh winters experienced by Japanese macaques, the slower reproductive rate of the Japanese monkeys has been selected for in order to enable females to lengthen the time in which maternal care is extended to their offspring.