The politics of marginalization: The appropriation of AIDS prevention messages among injection drug users

This essay addresses the space between a cultural critique and a class analysis of HIV transmission. It explores how injection drug users, as a disempowered group, resist hegemony through dissent. Distrust of the medical establishment and severe social and legal constraints force injection drug users to reconstruct the AIDS message. Economic and political survival inflates the need for trust and reciprocity within their social network. This makes the meaning of AIDS a continually ambiguous one for drug users. The ways in which dissent to domination is enacted and the effect this has on HIV prevention is explored.IfI'm that fucked up where I'll put a life-threatening drug into myself knowing it's dangerous, I really can't deal with a society that's telling me I deserve it. It takes all my strenght. The moral majority says it's God's way of taking care of these things. I hear too much of that. Drug addicts don't even want to talk about it [AIDS] because of the fear. I talk to people about it and they tune out. I can see their eyes glazing over.-A recovering addict     

Condom social marketing, Pentecostalism, and structural adjustment in Mozambique: a clash of AIDS prevention messages

Despite significant debate about the efficacy, ideology, and ethics of the method, condom social marketing (CSM) has become the dominant approach to AIDS education in many sub-Saharan African countries. However, critics have charged that social marketing (SM) distracts from the structural determinants of health-related behavior and excludes genuine community participation. This article argues that the diffusion of SM techniques in Africa is not driven by demonstrated efficacy but is attributable to the promotion of privatization and free markets in the structural adjustment era across the region. The CSM experience in a central Mozambican community reveals the dangers of using the method at the expense of community dialogue and participation to confront the AIDS epidemic. The advertising campaign developed to sell condoms has clashed with Pentecostal and Independent Churches, now a majority of the population, that have expanded rapidly across the region spreading a contrasting message about sexuality and risky behavior.     

Campaign against AIDS in Switzerland: evaluation of a nationwide educational programme.

The campaign against the spread of the acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) in Switzerland includes a nationwide educational programme. A booklet about AIDS was mailed to every Swiss household in March 1986, and in 1987 there has been a mass media campaign promoting the use of condoms. We evaluated the results of the first phase--the distribution of the booklet--using a separate sample pretest and post-test design. The pretest was carried out 15 days before the booklet was mailed (sample n = 1056) and the post-test two months after the booklet was mailed (n = 1278). Of the population aged 20-69, to whom the book was sent, 56% read the booklet. For those who read the booklet compared with those who did not the results showed an improvement in knowledge and a better understanding of the risks of specific behaviours and of exposed groups and thus less fear of becoming infected through daily activities. The mean indices of knowledge and beliefs were significantly different when tested by the Kruskal-Wallis method. Having better information does not imply that people will change their behaviour, but both the high reading rate and the increase in knowledge suggest that the Swiss educational programme reached its objectives. Moreover, the success of this campaign helps to support other campaigns that are being developed to promote the use of condoms.     

The value of educational messages embedded in a community-based approach to combat dengue Fever: a systematic review and meta regression analysis

Background

The effects of various dengue control measures have been investigated in previous studies. The aim of this review was to investigate the relative effectiveness (RE) of different educational messages embedded in a community-based approach on the incidence of Aedes aegypti larvae using entomological measures as outcomes.

Methods and Findings

A systematic electronic search using Medline, Embase, Web of Science and the Cochrane Library was carried out to March 2010. Previous systematic reviews were also assessed. Data concerning interventions, outcomes, effect size and study design were extracted. Basic meta-analyses were done for pooled effect size, heterogeneity and publication bias using Comprehensive Meta-analysis. Further analysis of heterogeneitity was done by multi-level modelling using MLwiN. 21 publications with 22 separate studies were included in this review. Meta-analysis of these 22 pooled studies showed an RE of 0.25 (95% CI 0.17–0.37), but with substantial heterogeneity (Cochran''s Q = 1254, df = 21, p = <0.001,). Further analysis of this heterogeneity showed that over 60% of between study variance could be explained by just two variables; whether or not studies used historic or contemporary controls and time from intervention to assessment. When analyses were restricted to those studies using contemporary control, there was a polynomial relationship between effectiveness and time to assessment. Whether or not chemicals or other control measures were used did not appear have any effect on intervention effectiveness.

Conclusion

The results suggest that such measures do appear to be effective at reducing entomological indices. However, those studies that use historical controls almost certainly overestimate the value of interventions. There is evidence that interventions are most effective some 18 to 24 months after the intervention but then subsequently decline.     

Cognitive and educational attainment in different ethnic groups.

The educational attainment of over 2000 children aged 7-15 years from six different ethnic groups was assessed. Children of Pakistani and of Bangladeshi origin tended to obtain the lowest mean scores on all tests, often well below those of West Indian children, who tended to perform as well as Indian children and often no worse than the indigenous majority. There were few signs of any reliable trends over age. Differences were more pronounced on tests of reading and vocabulary than on tests of mathematics but, on tests of non-verbal reasoning, most ethnic minorities also obtained low scores. Many of these differences were associated with differences in social and family circumstances.     

Diel changes in the specific growth rate and mean cell volume of natural bacterial communities in two different water masses in the Irish sea

Diel changes in the specific growth rates of natural bacterial communities as a whole and of different groups within the communities were followed over 2 days during July 1982, in stratified waters in the vicinity of a shallow sea tidal mixing front in the Irish Sea. Waters well above (4 m) and below (60 m) the thermocline were enclosed in dialysis bags and incubated in situ. The results show that there were periods of altered growth rates of the whole bacterial community and synchronous cell division of morphological groups. An increase in mean cell volume within both 4 and 60 m communities preceded an increase in specific growth rates, with a resultant decrease in the mean cell volume. Above the thermocline the whole bacterial community, as well as the rod and coccoid forms, doubled in number once a day. The doubling time of the whole bacterial community at 60 m was 2 days and slower than that at 4 m. This was due to a slower doubling time (3 days) for the coccoid forms. Rod forms at the two depths had a similar doubling time (1 day). The time of day when maximum division rate occurred was also different in the two water masses. At 4 m more coccoid forms divided during the night, whereas at 60 m more divided during the day. Conversely, at 4 m more rod forms divided during the day, whereas at 60 m more divided at night.These data indicate that the bacterial community and members of the community may be adapted to exploit the diurnal rhythms of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) release by other organisms and that portions of the bacterial community may therefore be more active at certain times of the day. The diurnal growth of the bacterial community may thus vary between different water masses and largely reflects the differences in the chemical and biological characteristics of the two water masses investigated.     

PIP3, PIP2, and cell movement--similar messages, different meanings?

The inositol lipids PI(4,5)P(2) and PI(3,4,5)P(3) are important regulators of actin polymerization, but their different temporal and spatial dynamics suggest that they perform separate roles. PI(3,4,5)P(3) seems to act as an instructive second messenger, inducing local actin polymerization. PI(4,5)P(2) appears to be present at too high a concentration and homogeneous a distribution to fulfil a similar role. Instead, we suggest that PI(4,5)P(2) acts permissively, restricting new actin polymerization to the region of the plasma membrane.     

Latitudinal distribution of microbial communities in anaerobic biological stabilization ponds: effect of the mean annual temperature

Considering wide utilization and high methane fluxes from anaerobic biological stabilization ponds (ABSPs), understanding the methanogenesis in ABSPs is of fundamental importance. Here we investigated the variation and impact factors of methanogenesis in seven ABSPs that spanned from the north to the south of China. Results showed that methanogen abundance (7.7 × 10⁹–8.7 × 10¹⁰ copies g^?1 dry sediment) and methanogenic activities (2.2–21.2 μmol CH₄ g^?1 dry sediment h^?1) were considerable for all sediments. Statistical analysis demonstrated that compared with other factors (ammonium, pH, COD and TOC), mean annual temperature (MAT) showed the lowest P value and thus was the most important influencing factor for the methanogenic process. Besides, with the increasing MAT, methanogenic activity was enhanced mainly due to the shift of the dominant methanogenic pathway from acetoclastic (49.8–70.7%) in low MAT areas to hydrogenotrophic (42.0–54.6%) in high MAT areas. This shift of methanogenic pathway was also paralleled with changes in composition of bacterial communities. These results suggested that future global warming may reshape the composition of methanogen communities and lead to an increasing methane emission from ABSPs. Therefore, further research is urgently needed to globally estimate methane emissions from ABSPs and re‐examine the role of ABSPs in wastewater treatment.     

Functional and structural analyses of trichloroethylene-degrading bacterial communities under different phenol-feeding conditions: laboratory experiments

The effects of different phenol-feeding conditions on trichloroethylene (TCE) biodegradation and bacterial population structure in an aquifer soil community were studied. The soil sample, minerals, phenol, and TCE were mixed in glass bottles, which were then incubated under three different phenol-feeding conditions. First, phenol was supplied only once at 0.2 mM (condition 0.2P); second, it was added at 2.0 mM (condition 2.0P); and third, it was periodically supplied ten times at 0.2 mM (condition 0.2PS). TCE concentrations remained stable under conditions 0.2P and 2.0P. In contrast, TCE was completely degraded under condition 0.2PS. TCE/phenol-degrading bacteria were enumerated indirectly and functionally by quantitative PCR. The low- K(s) (half saturation constant) group of phenol-degrading bacteria, exhibiting high TCE-degrading activity, yielded a 50-fold higher population under condition 0.2PS than under condition 2.0P. The bacterial community structure under condition 0.2PS was studied by denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis targeting the genes encoding 16S rRNA and the largest subunit of multicomponent phenol hydroxylase. Sequence analysis of the major bands detected indicated the predominance of the low- K(s) group of TCE/phenol-degrading bacteria belonging to beta-Proteobacteria. These results suggest that continuous supplementation with phenol at a low concentration increases the population of the low- K(s) group of TCE/phenol-degrading bacteria.     

Democracy, Multiculturalism, and the Community College: A Critical Perspective

Democracy, Multiculturalism, and the Community College: A Critical Perspective. Robert A. Rhoads and James R. Valadez. New York: Garland Publishing, 1996. 231 pp.     

A different disease: HIV/AIDS and health care for women in poverty

The goal of this paper is to demonstrate that HIV/AIDS for poor women is a qualitatively different disease than the one first defined in the United States in the 1980s. HIV/AIDS for poor women is not a new disease; it is only another life-threatening condition which parallels serious health problems already experienced by these populations. A time-honored and broad continuum of disease and death for poor women is linked to such factors as poverty, self-medication, infant morbidity, infant mortality and cervical cancer. The programmatic responses to HIV/AIDS in poor women have been grafted onto existing services established by and for homosexual men or onto the obstetrical-gynecological and prenatal systems already in place. Furthermore, the primary socio-psychological mechanisms of denial and dependency that characterize poor women are far more salient than notions of risk-taking or sexual lifestyles. These conclusions lead to somber predictions for the course of the epidemic and the prognosis for treatment and care for poor women with HIV.     

The diversity and function of soil microbial communities exposed to different disturbances

To improve understanding of the relationship between the diversity and function of the soil ecosystem, we investigated the effect of two different disturbances on soil bacterial communities—long-term exposure to the heavy metal mercury and transient exposure to the antibiotic tylosin. In the mercury-contaminated soil the diversity (Shannon index) was reduced as assessed from denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE) of amplified 16S rDNA sequences from the soil community DNA and from colony morphology typing of the culturable bacterial population. However, analysis of the substrate utilization profiles did not reveal any differences in diversity. In the tylosin-treated soil, DGGE revealed a small difference in the diversity of 16S rDNA compared to the control soil, whereas analysis of the colony morphology typing or substrate utilization results did not reveal any differences in diversity. Soil function was also affected by mercury contamination. The lag time before soil respiration increased following addition of glucose or alfalfa substrate was longer in the mercury-contaminated soil than in the control soil. Moreover, it was markedly prolonged in mercury-contaminated soil subjected to heat treatment prior to substrate addition, thus indicating reduced resistance to a new disturbance in the mercury-contaminated soil as compared to the control soil. Tylosin treatment did not have any significant effect on any of the respiration parameters measured, either with or without prior heat treatment of the soil.     

The impacts of different management strategies and environmental forcing in ecological communities

Understanding the effects of population management on the community a target species belongs to is of key importance for successful management. It is known that the removal or extinction of a single species in a community may lead to extinctions of other community members. In our study, we assess the impacts of population management on competitive communities, studying the response of both locally stable and unstable communities of varying size (between four and 10 species) to three different management strategies; harvesting of a target species, harvesting with non-targeted catch, and stocking of the target species. We also studied the consequences of selecting target species with different relative abundances, as well as the effects of varying environmental conditions.We show here how the effects of management in competitive communities extend far beyond the target population. A crucial role is played by the underlying stability properties of the community under management. In general, locally unstable communities are more vulnerable to perturbation through management. Furthermore, the community response is shown to be sensitive to the relative density of the target species. Of considerable interest is the result that even a small (2.5%) increase in the population size of the target species through stocking may lead to extinction of other community members. These results emphasize the importance of considering and understanding multi-species interactions in population management.     

Parental mean ages and birth order in different types of congenital heart defects

Summary This study has shown that in some of the most common congenital cardiac malformations, such as valvular aortic stenosis, coarctation of the aorta, pulmonary stenosis, atrial and ventricular septal defect and tetralogy of Fallot the mean parental age and the birth order are not involved in the genesis of these lesions. A birth-order effect was only found in patent ductus arteriosus. First-born children are significantly affected more often than later-born siblings. The maternal as well as the paternal mean age is lower in this cardiac lesion. This suggests toward causative factors which may be present mainly during the first pregnancy and in primogenitures. Hypoxia could be one of these factors. If is postulated that in the presence of a polygenetically determined predisposition to this condition hypoxia may prevent closure of the ductus arteriosus. These investigations show that the original method of Haldane-Smith cannot be used for the analysis of the birth order effects on congenital malformations of the heart since the sibships are often incomplete. A corrective method described by Vogel is a good aid for such investigations.

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Zusammenfassung Bei einer Reihe häufiger Herzfehler—valvulären Aortenstenosen, Aortenisthmusstenosen, Pulmonalstenosen, Vorhof-und Ventrikelseptumdefekten und der Fallotschen Tetralogie—sind das elterliche Alter sowie die Stellung in der Geburtenreihe nach unseren Untersuchungen ohne Bedeutung für die Mißbildungsentstehung. Dagegen haben wir das Vorliegen eines Geburtenordnungseffektes beim Ductus arteriosus Botalli bestätigen können. Erstgeborene Kinder werden signifikant häufiger betroffen. Es ist sowohl das durchschnittliche Alter der Probandenväter als auch das der Mütter herabgesetzt. Daraus darf man folgern, daß weder ein väterlicher noch ein mütterlicher Effekt, sondern vielmehr ein Effekt, der mit der Erstschwangerschaft und Erstgeburt als solcher zusammenhängt, vorliegt. Als Erklärung hierfür bietet sich die Sauerstoffmangelhypothese an. Ein relativer Sauerstoffmangel post partum ist vermutlich am besten geeignet, bei entsprechender polygen determinierter Erkrankungsbereitschaft den Schließungsprozeß des Ductus arteriosus Botalli zu hemmen.Aus unseren Untersuchungen hat sich weiterhin ergeben, daß das Originalverfahren von Haldane-Smith für Untersuchungen der Geburtenordnung bei angeborenen Herzfehlern ungeeignet ist, da in den Familien der Probanden die Geschwisterreihen öfter nicht abgeschlossen sind, was eine Voraussetzung für die Anwendung dieser Methode ist. Dagegen bewährt sich eine Korrektur des Haldane-Smith-Verfahrens für unabgeschlossene Geschwisterreihen nach Vogel.

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This investigation was supported by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, SFB 89 Kardiologie.     

不同植物群落下酸化尾矿养分状况及土壤酶活性

调查不同植被群落下铜尾矿的养分状况及土壤酶活性的变化动态,通过常规方法测定了尾矿的pH和电导率,以及有机质,总氮,有效磷,速效钾的含量。用底物反应法测定了过氧化氢酶,芳基硫酯酶,脲酶,酸性磷酸化酶和脱氢酶的活性。结果表明,与酸化的裸露尾矿相比,定居其上的芦苇(Phragmites australis)、狗牙根(Cynodon dactylon)和双穗雀稗(Paspalum distichum)均能显著增加尾矿基质pH值(从3.6上升到5.4),降低电导率,减缓尾矿酸化过程。芦苇和狗牙根能够显著提高尾矿基质中N、K和有机质含量(P<0.05),增加尾矿中的养分。3种植物群落下有效磷较裸露尾矿没有显著增加。植物的定居显著提高了尾矿中过氧化氢酶、芳基硫脂酶和脲酶的活性(P<0.05);但酸性磷酸化酶和脱氢酶活性没有显著提高。研究表明,植物对尾矿有明显的改良作用,而且芦苇和狗牙根优于双穗雀稗。在各种植被条件的尾矿中除酸性磷酸化酶以外的其它实验土壤酶活性均与尾矿中有机质和总氮呈极显著正相关(P<0.01)。     

Food-web structure of seagrass communities across different spatial scales and human impacts

Seagrass beds provide important habitat for a wide range of marine species but are threatened by multiple human impacts in coastal waters. Although seagrass communities have been well-studied in the field, a quantification of their food-web structure and functioning, and how these change across space and human impacts has been lacking. Motivated by extensive field surveys and literature information, we analyzed the structural features of food webs associated with Zostera marina across 16 study sites in 3 provinces in Atlantic Canada. Our goals were to (i) quantify differences in food-web structure across local and regional scales and human impacts, (ii) assess the robustness of seagrass webs to simulated species loss, and (iii) compare food-web structure in temperate Atlantic seagrass beds with those of other aquatic ecosystems. We constructed individual food webs for each study site and cumulative webs for each province and the entire region based on presence/absence of species, and calculated 16 structural properties for each web. Our results indicate that food-web structure was similar among low impact sites across regions. With increasing human impacts associated with eutrophication, however, food-web structure show evidence of degradation as indicated by fewer trophic groups, lower maximum trophic level of the highest top predator, fewer trophic links connecting top to basal species, higher fractions of herbivores and intermediate consumers, and higher number of prey per species. These structural changes translate into functional changes with impacted sites being less robust to simulated species loss. Temperate Atlantic seagrass webs are similar to a tropical seagrass web, yet differed from other aquatic webs, suggesting consistent food-web characteristics across seagrass ecosystems in different regions. Our study illustrates that food-web structure and functioning of seagrass habitats change with human impacts and that the spatial scale of food-web analysis is critical for determining results.     

Biodiversity in agricultural landscapes: different non-crop habitats increase diversity of ground-dwelling beetles (Coleoptera) but support different communities

Agricultural intensification poses a major threat to the conservation of biodiversity and associated ecosystem services. Since non-crop habitats are regarded as important refuges for farmland biodiversity, various greening measures have been proposed to halt biodiversity loss. However, the effectiveness of these measures for biodiversity conservation is still under debate. Therefore, we here compared ground-dwelling beetle (Coleoptera) assemblages of different non-crop habitats (field margins, set-aside fields sown with wildflowers, and permanent grassland fallows) and wheat fields within an intensively used agricultural landscape in western Germany. Taxonomic diversity of Carabidae, Staphylinidae and other coleopteran families and their conservation value were higher in all non-crop habitats than on wheat fields. Surprisingly, though, different types of non-crop habitats did not differ in species richness or the number of threatened species. Thus, field margins and sown wildflower fields were as effective in promoting beetle diversity as grassland fallows. However, different non-crop habitats supported different species assemblages, and several species, in particular especially large ones, were restricted to grassland fallows. These results suggest that different greening measures are effective in promoting the biodiversity of beetles, and that permanent grassland fallows are essential for nature conservation. The fact that habitat types harbored different assemblages stresses the need to combine a variety of greening measures to yield the highest benefit for biodiversity.