Staging Social Structures: Ritual and Social Organisation in an Egalitarian Society. The Pastoral Pokot of Northern Kenya

The pastoral Pokot of northern Kenya represent their society as highly structured by descent and age grading. Descent groups (clans, lineages) and age grades (age sets, generation sets) are depicted as bounded but related units within a complex hierarchical and coherent system, the essence of Pokot society which is staged and visualised in major rituals. This study shows that they are not important in Pokot economic exchange. The formal analysis of livestock exchange networks centred upon individuals shows that emic representations do not match actual exchange behaviour. Complementing the well-established structuralist representation of pastoral social systems, this paper investigates the agency aspect, which has been largely unexplored. It furthermore documents how social exchange is contained in the various institutions of descent and age grading. Contextualising the case historically it is shown that the pastoral Pokot developed from a fragmented clan-based agro-pastoral society in which descent was the main ordering principle for land tenure and conflict management into a more comprehensive social entity with clearly definable borders to the outside, dense internal exchange networks and strong representations of the corporateness of subgroups. The rapid adoption of mobile livestock husbandry was accompanied by the rise of widespread exchange networks and social interaction with a much wider group of unrelated actors marking the foundations of a pastoral society.     

Nature conservation at the edge

Currently, there is an increasing need for evidence-based strategies in nature conservation, for example when designing and establishing nature reserves. In this contribution, we critically assess the ecological relevance of recent nature conservation practices in Kenya (East Africa), a region of global biodiversity hotspots. More specifically, we overlay the distribution of species richness (here based on mammals, birds, amphibians and vascular plants) with the location of nature reserves, the Kenyan agro-ecological zones (areas representing diverging agricultural potentials), and with the spatial distribution of human population density. Our analyses indicate that the majority of protected areas are located in areas with comparatively low species richness, while areas with extraordinary high levels of species richness are not adequately covered by nature reserves. Areas of high agricultural productivity (and with high human demographic pressure) are mainly reserved for high-yield agriculture; however, these regions are also characterised by high species richness. The majority of nature reserves are restricted to the semi-arid regions of Kenya, marginal for agricultural usage, but also with low levels of species richness. Based on this analysis, we prioritize areas for future protection. This single-country case illustrates that agricultural production in high-yield areas outweighs nature conservation goals, even in global biodiversity hotspot regions, and that priority setting may conflict with effective nature conservation.     

Evaluating,predicting and mapping belowground carbon stores in Kenyan mangroves

Despite covering only approximately 138 000 km², mangroves are globally important carbon sinks with carbon density values three to four times that of terrestrial forests. A key challenge in evaluating the carbon benefits from mangrove forest conservation is the lack of rigorous spatially resolved estimates of mangrove sediment carbon stocks; most mangrove carbon is stored belowground. Previous work has focused on detailed estimations of carbon stores over relatively small areas, which has obvious limitations in terms of generality and scope of application. Most studies have focused only on quantifying the top 1 m of belowground carbon (BGC). Carbon stored at depths beyond 1 m, and the effects of mangrove species, location and environmental context on these stores, are poorly studied. This study investigated these variables at two sites (Gazi and Vanga in the south of Kenya) and used the data to produce a country‐specific BGC predictive model for Kenya and map BGC store estimates throughout Kenya at spatial scales relevant for climate change research, forest management and REDD+ (reduced emissions from deforestation and degradation). The results revealed that mangrove species was the most reliable predictor of BGC; Rhizophora muronata had the highest mean BGC with 1485.5 t C ha^?1. Applying the species‐based predictive model to a base map of species distribution in Kenya for the year 2010 with a 2.5 m² resolution produced an estimate of 69.41 Mt C [±9.15 95% confidence interval (C.I.)] for BGC in Kenyan mangroves. When applied to a 1992 mangrove distribution map, the BGC estimate was 75.65 Mt C (±12.21 95% C.I.), an 8.3% loss in BGC stores between 1992 and 2010 in Kenya. The country‐level mangrove map provides a valuable tool for assessing carbon stocks and visualizing the distribution of BGC. Estimates at the 2.5 m² resolution provide sufficient details for highlighting and prioritizing areas for mangrove conservation and restoration.     

Understanding ecosystem dynamics for conservation of biota

1. Ecosystems have higher-order emerging properties that can affect the conservation of species. We identify some of these properties in order to facilitate a better understanding of them. 2. Nonlinear, indirect effects of food web interactions among species can produce counterintuitive changes in populations. 3. Species differ in their roles and linkages with other species in the system. These roles are a property of the system. Such differences in roles influence how we conserve individual species. 4. Ecosystems operate at a multitude of interacting spatial and temporal scales, which together structure the system and affect the dynamics of individual populations. 5. Disturbance also structures an ecosystem, producing both long-term slow changes and sudden shifts in ecosystem dynamics. 6. Ecosystems therefore can have multiple states, determined both by disturbance regimes and biotic interactions. Conservation should recognize a possible multiplicity of natural states while avoiding aberrant (human-induced) states. 7. Ecosystem processes are influenced by the composition of the biota they contain. Disturbances to the biota can distort processes and functions, which in turn can endanger individual species. 8. The goal of ecosystem conservation is the long-term persistence of the biota in the system. There are two paradigms: community-based conservation (CBC) and protected area conservation. Both have their advantages but neither is sufficient to protect the biota on its own. 9. CBC is required to conserve the majority of the world's biota not included in protected areas. However, current CBC methods favour a few idiosyncratic species, distort the species complex, and ignore the majority. More comprehensive methods are required for this approach to meet the goal of ecosystem conservation. 10. Protected areas are essential to conserve species unable to coexist with humans. They also function as ecological baselines to monitor the effects of humans on their own ecosystems. 11. However, protected areas suffer from loss of habitat through attrition of critical areas. Thus, renewal (addition) of habitat is required in order to achieve the long-term persistence of biota in functioning ecosystems. Identification of minimum habitat areas and restoration of ecosystems become two major priorities for future research.     

保护区与社区关系协调:方法和实践经验

保护区的持续存在和发展必须得到当地居民的支持和认可。从理论上讲,保护区和社区之间的关系在区域尺度上表现为保护成本和收益分配不均衡,在保护区内表现为保护和发展之间的冲突。在实践上,保护区的管理模式已经从以前传统的强制性保护转向比较公开、民主的保护模式,比较典型的方法包括生物圈保护区、综合保护和发展项目(ICDPs)以及基于社区的自然资源管理(CBNRM)。通过多年的实践,上述方法取得了许多经验和教训．目前已在三个方面达成共识：社区和社区行为在理论和实践中不一致、社区居民与其他利益群体之间的协调机制以及项目实施所必需的支持／保障机制。本文对国内外协调保护区与社区关系的方法和实践经验等进行分析和总结,以期为改善我国自然保护区的管理,实现可持续发展提供借鉴。     

An elephantine challenge: human–elephant conflict distribution in the largest Asian elephant population,southern India

Wildlife conservation is a complex issue especially when it involves large carnivores or mega-herbivores that are conflict-prone. Karnataka state in southern India is known to harbor high density of wild elephants. This conservation success story also has opportunity costs for communities living in close proximity to elephants. Despite the fact that human–elephant conflict is a serious conservation and social issue, there is little quantitative understanding of conflict especially over large areas. Here we conduct the first analysis of human–elephant conflict distribution, severity and explanatory factors over the entire state of Karnataka. We use data from the state forest department records on villages that experience conflict, compensation payments made by the government, elephant densities, forest cover and perimeter, and presence of physical barriers to mitigate elephant conflict. In total, 60,939 incidences of crop loss were reported and US$ 2.99 m paid in compensation during April 2008–March 2011. A total of 91 people were killed by elephants and 101 elephants died in retaliatory killings during the study period. A total of 9.4 % of the state’s geographic area covering 25 of the 42 forest administrative divisions were affected. There was no significant difference in conflict incidences or compensation given between protected areas and non-protected areas. There was no correlation between conflict incidences/unit area and elephant density, forest cover, forest perimeter of protected areas and presence of physical barriers. The results depict the importance of efficient management of physical barriers, conserving key habitat linkages, and acts as baseline data for future work.     

Investigating wildlife and grazing perspectives of Kenyan university students

Recent conservation efforts recognize that human needs cannot be ignored. One way to understand the social components of resource management is to evaluate stakeholder perspectives. Stakeholder perspectives are an important component of developing effective natural resource management plans, specifically in the developing world. However, most stakeholder research in Africa focuses on local communities in locales adjacent to protected areas. This research expands the stakeholder population by looking at university students’ perspectives regarding the Maasai Mara region of Kenya in relation to two complex and high profile issues: wildlife and grazing. Increased understanding of these topics in a diverse and urbanizing nation like Kenya can lead to better outcomes for conservation efforts. Using Photovoice, a qualitative research method, participants shared their perspective and built upon others’ ideas about wildlife and grazing. Results suggest that there was a wide array of perspective regarding wildlife and grazing. Economics played a large part in both wildlife and grazing perspectives. However, there was also concern for the aesthetic and cultural value of wildlife and grazing in Kenya, which is contrary to some previous findings. Due to the varying perspective and multiple stakeholder groups, research should continue to explore the social aspects of natural resource management regarding wildlife and grazing in the Maasai Mara region of Kenya.     

Enhancing pest control in annual crops by conservation of predatory Heteroptera

Conservation biological control (CBC) combines a diverse set of actions aiming to enhance pest regulation by the provision of pest natural enemies’ preservation in the crop environment. This is accomplished through appropriate implementation practices and the creation of infrastructures of non-crop vegetation. On most annual crops, omnivorous heteropteran predators comprise the main assemblage of native natural enemies. Their populations, when protected from pesticides, have shown a high potential in biological control. Aiming to promote their functioning in CBC, efforts targeted to modify the crop environment are focusing on the determination of their non-crop host plants that can support the predators’ persistence as well as the emigration of these predators to the nearby crops. Nonetheless, relatively few studies seek to collect essential and adequately verified data for the practical implementation of CBC approaches. In this review, the advances already developed are illustrated, the shortcomings are discussed and the future research needs are highlighted in an effort to intensify efforts for CBC developments on annual crops.     

The Development of Primate Raiding: Implications for Management and Conservation

Ecosystems and habitats are fast becoming human dominated, which means that more species, including primates, are compelled to exploit new human resources to survive and compete. Primate “pests” pose major management and conservation challenges. I here present the results from a unique opportunity to document how well-known individuals and groups respond to the new opportunity to feed on human foods. Data are from a long-term study of a single population in Kenya at Kekopey, near Gilgil, Kenya. Some of the naïve research baboons became raiders while others did not. I compare diet, activity budgets, and home range use of raiders and nonraiders both simultaneously, after the incursion of agriculture, and historically compared to the period before agriculture appeared. I present measures of the relative benefits (female reproduction) and costs (injuries, mortality, and survivorship) of incorporating human food into the diet and discuss why the baboons raid and their variations in raiding tendencies. Guarding and chasing are evaluated as control techniques. I also suggest conflict mitigation strategies by identifying the most likely options in different contexts. I end with a proposal for a rapid field assessment of human wildlife conflict involving primates.     

Beehive fences as effective deterrents for crop‐raiding elephants: field trials in northern Kenya

Increasing elephant populations in Kenya since 1989 have been widely praised as a conservation success story. However, where elephants and agricultural land overlap, incidents of human–elephant conflict are on the increase. Wildlife managers and farmers are now trying different farm‐based deterrents to keep elephants out of crops. Here, we present data on the effectiveness of a novel beehive fence deployed in a Turkana community of 62 communally run farms in Kenya. Specifically, 1700 m of beehive fences semi‐surrounded the outer boundaries of seventeen farms, and we compared elephant farm invasion events with these and to seventeen neighbouring farms whose boundaries were ‘protected’ only by thorn bush barriers. We present data from 45 farm invasions, or attempted invasions, recorded over 2 years. Thirteen groups of elephants approached the beehive fences and turned away. Of the 32 successful farm invasions, only one bull elephant broke through the beehive fences. These results demonstrate that beehive fences are more effective than thorn bush barriers at deterring elephants and may have a role to play in alleviating farmer–elephant conflict. Additionally, the harvesting of 106 kg of honey during the trial period suggests that beehive fences may also improve crop production and enhance rural livelihoods through honey sales.