Description of the stridulatory apparatus of the Far Eastern bark beetles <Emphasis Type="Italic">Polygraphus proximus</Emphasis> Blandford, 1894 and <Emphasis Type="Italic">P. jezoensis</Emphasis> Niisima, 1909 (Coleoptera,Curculionidae: Scolytinae)

The stridulatory organ structure in two Far Eastern bark beetles, Polygraphus proximus and P. jezoensis, is described. The elytro-tergal type of the stridulatory apparatus is found in P. jezoensis. The structure involved in acoustic communication of P. jezoensis is present only in males. The plectrum of P. proximus males is re-described. Similarly to that in P. jezoensis, it is formed by two tubercles at the distal margin of tergite VII. An additional type of stridulatory organ used for the producing of precopulatory courtship signals is described for males of P. proximus. In this type of stridulatory organ, transverse ridges on the costal margin of the elytron act as pars stridens, and the hind tibia, as the plectrum.     

Comparative study of the morphology of stridulatory organs of the Iberian lycaenid butterfly pupae (Lepidoptera)

We compared the pupal stridulatory organs of 35 species and one subspecies of Iberian Lycaenidae using scanning electron microscopy. The studied species belong to the tribes Theclini, Eumaeini, Lycaenini, and Polyommatini. Nine species do not show stridulatory organs on the pupae but all other species possess them. Stridulatory organs are formed by a stridulatory plate (pars stridens) placed on the fifth abdominal segment and a file (plectron) in the sixth abdominal segment. The plate has tubercles in the Theclini and Lycaenini, tubercles, ridges, or undulations in the Eumaenini, and tubercles, teeth, or unspecialized structures in the Polyommatini. Morphological differences can be found in the files of the different tribes, regarding the number of teeth, their form and size. Cuticular formations of the organs were studied on a surface of 2,500 µm² and the average of ridges, tubercles, and teeth was measured searching for relevant taxonomic information. Stridulatory organs were thought to be an adaptation to myrmecophily but we show that they are present both in myrmecophilous and nonmyrmecophilous species; therefore, we suggest that this trait probably did not evolve in relation with myrmecophily, but may be used to enhance relationships with ants. J. Morphol. 275:414–430, 2014. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Structure and evolution of stridulatory mechanisms in New Zealand wetas (Orthoptera : Stenopelmatidae)

Four types of stridulatory mechanisms were found in 35 species (7 genera) of New Zealand wetas (Orthoptera : Stenopelmatidae). These include: (1) tergo-femoral; (2) tergo-tergal; (3) mandbbuao-mandibular; and (4) pleuro-coxal. These fell into 12 groups, based upon shape, density and pattern of tergal and femoral pegs, number of terga bearing pegs and presence of mandibular tusks bearing stridulatory tubercles. The plesiomorphic condition, consisting of spinose peg patches on 3 or more abdominal tergites rubbed by bands of pegs on the femur, is found in Hemiandrus spp. Apomorphically-derived tergal files have arisen separately in 3 other genera. In Hemideina, (2 species groups) well-formed files are very similar among species. In Deinacrida, (4 species groups), the trend is toward file reduction into one or 2 massive tergal ridges, and embellished femoral pegs. In the tusked wetas (2 gen., 2 spp.), one species has a crude file of many broken ridges. Stridulatory structures on mandibular tusks of both New Zealand species are unique, although the tusks appear to have their origin in African stenopelmatids. The plesiomorphic condition appears to have been deployed originally for defense stridulation (inter-specific communication). Additional intea-specific stridulatory communication developed in Hemideina and Deinacrida, using the apomorphic file and peg mechanisms. Here, the stridulation is associated with defense, calling, mating and disturbance behaviors.     

A unique form of light reflector and the evolution of signalling in Ovalipes (Crustacea: Decapoda: Portunidae)

The first demonstration, to our knowledge, of an evolutionary shift in communication mode in animals is presented. Some species of Ovalipes display spectacular iridescence resulting from multilayer reflectors in the cuticle. This reflector is unique in animals because each layer is corrugated and slightly out of phase with adjacent layers. Solid layers are separated from fluid layers in the reflector by side branches acting as support struts. An effect of this reflector is that blue light is reflected over a ''broad'' angle around a plane parallel to the sea floor when the host crab is resting. Species of Ovalipes all possess stridulatory structures. The shallow-water species with the best developed stridulatory structures are non-iridescent and use sound as a signal. Deep-water species possess poorly developed stridulatory structures and display iridescence from most regions of the body. In deep water, where incident light is blue, light display is highly directional in contrast to sound produced via stridulation. Sound and light display probably perform the same function of sexual signalling in Ovalipes, although the directional signal is less likely to attract predators. Deep-water species of Ovalipes appear to have evolved towards using light in conspecific signalling. This change from using sound to using light reflects the change in habitat light properties, perhaps the hunting mechanisms of cohabitees, and its progression is an indicator of phylogeny. The changes in sexual signalling mechanisms, following spatial–geographical isolation, may have promoted speciation in Ovalipes.     

A new species of Aphis Linnaeus from Guangxi,China (Hemiptera,Aphididae), based on morphological characters and DNA sequences

A new species of the genus Aphis with stridulatory apparatus, Aphis gnetuma Qiao sp. n., feeding on Gnetum parvifolium which is a new host plant record for aphids from Guangxi, China is described. The new species is distinguished by a well-developed median frontal tubercle and body bearing white wax powder in life. The taxonomic position of this new species is supported by analysis results of COI and gnd genes. A key to Aphis species with stridulatory spines on the hind tibiae of apterous viviparous females is provided. The type specimens studied are deposited in the National Zoological Museum of China, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.www.zoobank.org/urn:lsid:zoobank.org:act:BBB024DA-8454-4E22-8736-66ED92A3091B.     

Microscopic anatomy of male tegumental glands and associated cuticular structures in Titanethes albus (Crustacea: Isopoda)

Male glandular organs characterized by porous surfaces with hair-like cuticular elaborations are known from several trichoniscid isopods. In the subterranean species Titanethes albus, males possess paired tubercles with numerous hairs and pores dorsally on the pleon. We analyzed the microscopic anatomy of these structures with scanning and transmission electron microscopy. Diverse epicuticular formations and numerous sensilla, which are probably chemoreceptive, are present on the tubercles. We found several secretory surfaces on the pleon in addition to the dorsal tubercles. We also examined the distribution, architecture and ultrastructure of male-specific glands in T. albus with light and transmission electron microscopy. Three distinct types of male-specific rosette glands are present in different parts of the pleon and in the uropods. Glands secreting on the dorsal tubercles contain stellar central cells. The ultrastructure and histochemical staining properties of male-specific glands in T. albus suggest that they produce peptides which might function as contact pheromones.     

A new genus of Chifengiinae (Orthoptera: Ensifera: Prophalangopsidae) from the Middle Jurassic (Jiulongshan Formation) of Inner Mongolia,China

The Middle Jurassic Ashangopsis daohugouensis, gen. et sp. n., of the prophalangopsid subfamily Chifengiinae is described based on two well-preserved specimens collected from the fossil locality near Daohugou at Ningcheng County, Inner Mongolia, Northeast China. The new genus is characterized by the particular shape of its pronotum, its hind leg, and stridulatory veins that only concern the cubital area but not the anal area, unlike in other Chifengiinae.     

One new species of the subgenus Hexatoma (Eriocera) Macquart (Diptera,Limoniidae) from China with a key to Chinese species

One new species of the subgenus Eriocera Macquart, 1838, Hexatoma (Eriocera) cleopatroides Men, sp. n. (Southern China: Anhui) is described and illustrated. A key to all of 78 known species from China in the subgenus is provided, which was solely based on literatures. The new species is similar to Hexatoma (Eriocera) cleopatra Alexander, 1933, but distinguishes from the latter by the prescutum entirely black with two ill-defined gray stripes, by the legs with fore and middle femora brown in basal half, black in apical half, with hind femora brown in basal one-fourth, and by the wings with cells c and sc more yellowish brown than the ground color.     

Multiple male morphs in the leaf‐footed bug Mictis longicornis (Hemiptera: Coreidae)

Species within the coreid clade (Hemiptera: Coreidae) can often be observed competing in intrasexual competitions over access to mates and territories. Coreids that partake in these competitions typically possess sexually dimorphic hind legs that are used to strike and squeeze their rivals. In addition to their weaponized legs, some coreid species also possess sexually dimorphic abdominal tubercles, which are assumed to be sexually selected weapons. Still, much remains unknown about the morphology of these structures. Here, using the species Mictis longicornis Westwood, we investigate the frequency distribution and static allometry of abdominal thickness, a measure that includes tubercle length. Furthermore, we also investigate the morphological relationship between abdominal tubercles and weaponized hind legs. We find that male abdominal thickness is best explained by a bimodal distribution, thereby describing the first observed male polymorphism in the coreid clade; a phenomenon typically associated with alternative reproductive tactics. Additionally, we find that major males are characterized primarily by having large weaponized legs and abdominal tubercles, which further suggests that abdominal tubercles are used in male–male competition.     

SOUND PRODUCTION BY AQUATIC INSECTS

1. Sound production by aquatic insects is found in four orders — Trichoptera, Odonata, Heteroptera and Coleoptera. 2. Immature aquatic insects that produce sound are rare, stridulation being present in one family of Trichoptera (Hydropsychidae) and one genus and species in a relic suborder of Odonata (Anisozygoptera) - Epiophlebia superstes. Hydropsychid larvae produce sound with a head/fore femur mechanism and use sound as part of aggressive behaviour for defence of feeding nets. Larval E. superstes use a hind femur/abdominal mechanism to dissuade predators. 3. Sound production has been documented in adults of all families of aquatic Heteroptera except Helotrephidae. In corixids and notonectids, acoustic signals play a role in mating. Members of the genus Buenoa (Notonectidae) are unique in having two stridulatory mechanisms in the same individual. Sound production has been most intensively studied in the Corixidae. Although sounds are used in mating by all singing corixids, their use seems to be facultative in some species and obligatory in others. Recent experiments by Theiss (1982) have shown that the air stores carried by corixids are used for both sound radiation and reception. 4. The adephagan beetle families Hygrobiidae, Dytiscidae and Haliplidae have all been shown to produce sound. Mechanisms of sound production have been established for haliplids and hygrobiids but have yet to be for most dytiscids. Sound production is used by beetles as part of sequences of aggressive/defensive and reproductive behaviour. 5. Sound production is especially well documented in the Hydrophilidae (Polyphaga). Hydrophilids use an abdominal/elytral mechanism and sound appears to be used in the same contexts as in adephagans. 6. Insects that produce sound under water must contend with the physical problems of sound transmission in a relatively dense, viscous medium with sharp boundaries. Because of potential distortion of the frequency components in a signal by reflection from the air/water interface in very shallow water, frequency is unreliable for encoding information. Aquatic insects use instead amplitude modulation and temporal patterning of signals. 7. For aquatic invertebrates, sound fields are different than those in air because the extent of the near field is approximately four times greater in water. This near field, a region in which displacement waves are predominant over pressure waves, extends to a greater distance than most aquatic insects communicate over. Such displacement waves could have important but as yet unconsidered effects. 8. The mass and viscosity of the water dictates that sound producing structures of aquatic insects should be heavier and more massive than those of terrestrial insects. A survey of stridulatory organs of aquatic insects reveals this to be true and reveals that the relatively fragile, membranous stridulatory organs of some terrestrial insects (especially Orthoptera) are absent. 9. The elaboration of sound producing structures in aquatic insects probably occurred at the family or subfamily level and for Heteroptera, Trichoptera and Odonata evolved after the invasion of the water. Acoustic signals used reproductively would probably be more closely associated with the emergence of new taxa. 10. Stridulatory structures have been derived from either structures devoted to some other function or from structures involved in the behaviour currently enhanced by sound production.     

Stridulatory organs in spiny orb-weaver spiders

A stridulatory organ is here described for the first time in the family Argiopidae. The file is on the surface of the lungbook covers, and the scraper is on the base of the femora. Altogether seven different kinds of stridulatory organs have been distinguished in spiders according to the positions of the files and scrapers. The organ now described in the spiny orb-weavers of the genus Micrathena was previously known only in a few genera of the family Erigonidae. In one of the species of Micrathena the ridges of the stridulatory file are sufficiently close together to give bright diffraction spectra at incidences near grazing. The primitive polygonal pattern on the surface of the cuticle of spiders is illustrated, and the mode of formation of the stridulatory file is suggested.     

Sex Pheromone in the Aphid <Emphasis Type="Italic">Megoura viciae</Emphasis>

THE adult egg-laying females (oviparae) of most holocyclic aphid species bear on their swollen hind tibiae circular plaques or tubercles which taxonomists variously refer to as sensoria, pseudosensoria, or pseudorhinaria. It has been suggested that they aid the ovipara in fixing her eggs to the host plant¹, that they are sensory receptors², or that they produce a sex pheromone which attracts the males^3–5. Pettersson⁶ has advanced preliminary evidence for the latter function in a species of Schizaphis. Recent studies have shown that these structures (Fig. 1) in Megoura viciae Buckton do indeed secrete a sex pheromone and, moreover, that striking changes in the daily pattern of pheromone release occur as the female ages. In this article these pseudosensoria will be referred to as “scent plaques”, an appropriate term first used by Stroyan⁷.     

Ground reaction forces in vertically ascending beetles and corresponding activity of the claw retractor muscle on smooth and rough substrates

We measured ground reaction forces in fore–aft and normal directions of single hind and front legs in vertically ascending Sagra femorata beetles (Coleoptera, Chrysomelidae) on a smooth and a rough substrate. Simultaneously, we performed electromyographic recordings (EMGs) of the hind leg claw retractor muscle that partly controls the attachment structures. On both substrates, hind legs produced upward- as well as downward-directed forces during one stance phase. Forces were equivalent in both directions. Front legs generated only upward-directed forces. The main function of hind legs in ascending beetles in the second half of the stance thus probably prevented the animals from tilting away from the substrate. The EMGs of hind legs showed an early spike during stance with large amplitude. It was mostly followed by few additional spikes with large amplitude and in some cases of spikes with smaller amplitude distributed throughout the stance phase. We found significantly more spikes on the rough substrate than on the smooth one. This is probably due to the more important role of pretarsal claws than tarsal hairy attachment pads on the rough substrate or to the reduced adhesive forces on the rough substrate that have to be compensated by additional muscle activity.     

Le revêtement cutané des raies (Chondrichthyes,Elasmobranchii, Batoidea). II. Morphologie et arrangement des tubercules cutanés

The dermal covering of most batoid fish is constituted by dermal denticles and by different series of tubercles or thorns. The repartition and the morphological variations of these structures can provide complementary information about the taxonomy of skates and rays. The variations in these dermal structures within Pristiforms, Rajiforms and Myliobatiforms have been studied, taking into consideration the number of tubercles, their location and their arrangement in different series. Following Hubbs and Ishiyama [30], two new terms and 15 new series are indicated. The characteristics of the arrangement and of the morphology of these structures can separate the Rajiforms, having spiny tubercles or thorns, from the Myliobatiformes, bearing lanceolate or heart-shaped tubercles. The main taxinomic characters found are: guitar fish characterized by two scapular series, one well-developed rostral series and tubercles with an anterolateral ornamentation (relief). Within this group, Rhinidae and Rhynchobatidae are set apart by the morphology of their tubercles (devoid of any anterolateral ornamentation), by the absence of a middorsal caudal series and by the presence of an outer supraspiracular series. Platyrhina and Platyrhinoidis are distinguishable by the absence of anterolateral relief and by the presence of anterolateral, lateral and parallel series. Rajoids are characterized by thorns, only one scapular series and sometimes a nucho-scapular triangle, malar and alar thorns in adults, and well-developed parallel and lateral series. Myliobatiforms are devoid of rostral, orbito-spiracular, malar, alar, anterolateral, parallel and lateral series but a caudal sting is present in most species. Sawfish are almost entirely devoid of tubercules, except for rostral ‘teeth’. The morphology and arrangement of the rostral teeth can differenciate the two genera within this family.     

Three new species of Tricorythopsis (Ephemeroptera: Leptohyphidae) from southeastern Brazil

Three new species of Tricorythopsis Traver (Ephemeroptera: Leptohyphidae) are described and illustrated based on nymphs from southeastern Brazil. These new species can be distinguished from other species of the genus by the following characters: Tricorythopsis araponga sp. n.: (1) femora with long setae; (2) abdominal segments 5–7 with dorsal tubercles; (3) tarsal claws with 4–6 marginal denticles and 7 + 4 submarginal denticles. Tricorythopsis baptistai sp. n.: (1) tarsal claws with 4–5 large marginal denticles and one submarginal denticle on each side; (2) abdominal colour pattern; (3) abdomen without tubercles; (4) coxae without projections. Tricorythopsis pseudogibbus sp. n.: (1) abdominal segments 6–8 with small dorsal tubercles; (2) tarsal claws with four large marginal denticles, and 3 + 1 or 2 submarginal denticles; (3) coxae dorsally projected; (4) femora broad and with short setae; (5) pronotum with anterolateral projection.     

Courtship song analysis in two hybrid zones between sibling species of the <Emphasis Type="Italic">Chorthippus albomarginatus</Emphasis> group (Orthoptera,Gomphocerinae)

Two new hybrid zones between sibling species of the Chorthippus albomarginatus group were described on the basis of the courtship song analysis. Not only the sounds emitted but also the accompanying stridulatory movements of the hind legs were analyzed, which allowed the temporal parameters to be classified in a more reliable way. One hybrid zone between Ch. albomarginatus and Ch. karelini was found in Ulyanovsk and Samara Provinces of Russia. The other hybrid zone, presumably between Ch. karelini and Ch. oschei, was found in the protected Askania-Nova steppe area in Kherson Province of Ukraine. Based on comparison of the natural and laboratory hybrids, a hypothesis on the structure and dynamics of the hybrid zones is proposed.     

Sexual dimorphism in a Lower Miocene moronid?

A series of questionable elements in certain specimens ofMorone cf.aequalis (Koken 1891) from Lower Miocene deposits near the village of Berkersheim, N of Frankfurt a. M. (Hessen, Germany) is described, which has not been known from any other percoid before. These elements are fully ossified and cover the cheek and the preopercular region. Even within well-preserved material, they are only present in some specimens. Therefore, they may be specialized structures that are indicative for sexual dimorphism. Nevertheless, they clearly differ from all other respective structures that have been described from teleosts: Multicellular epidermal horny tubercles (“breeding tubercles”) mainly consist of keratine and not of calciumphosphate. By contrast, contact organs consist of bone and are located mainly at the surface of the fin rays and scales, respectively. At present, “breeding tubercles” are the favorite interpretation and the original substance may have been replaced via post-mortem phosphatization.     

Diagnosis, classification, and phylogenetic relationships of the orphnine scarab beetles (Coleoptera, Scarabaeidae: Orphninae)

Orphnine scarab beetles (Orphninae) are widely distributed in the tropical and subtropical regions of the southern continents except for Australia. The catalogue of nominal taxa of orphnines includes 2 tribes, 15 genera, and 195 species. Diagnosis of the group, based on adult morphological characters, is as follows: antennae 10-segmented with 3-segmented club; mandibles with 2?C4 scissorial teeth and well developed mola; labrum and mandibles protruding past clypeus and visible from above; scutellum well developed in winged species, reduced but distinct in wingless species; wings with distinct anal area; apices of anterior tibia in males without spur but normally with a few robust setae; anterior coxa with longitudinal hollow on anterior surface; tarsi with 2 similar claws; middle and hind tibiae with 2 apical spurs; abdominal sternite 2 with sub-triangular to rounded plectrum; dorsal surface of hind coxae with oval flat stridulatory file; pygidium partly hidden under elytra; parameres symmetrical; bursa copulatrix sacciform, membranous; spermatheca C-shaped, not sclerotized; accessory vaginal glands developed; abdomen with 2 sclerotized tergites (VII?CVIII) and 6 visible sternites (III?CVIII). Preliminary phylogenetic analysis based on 47 characters of adult morphology shows that the tribe Aegidiini Paulian is a natural, monophyletic group. The genus Stenosternus Karsch described from a single specimen from S?o Tomé Island (Gulf of Guinea), is morphologically more similar to the New World taxa than to the Old World ones and is provisionally placed in Aegidiini. The tribe Orphnini Erichson seems non-monophyletic and has no synapomorphies. The genus Orphnus is apparently a polyphyletic group and it needs taxonomic revision. The hypothesis on sister-group relationship of Orphninae and Allidiostomatinae, based on molecular data, is not supported by the morphological characters. The stridulatory organs (the putative synapomorphy of Orphninae + Allidiostomatinae) are not identical in these groups; the mouthparts and female genitalia are essentially different. Orphninae have chewing mouthparts with large scissorial teeth and well developed mola, which is characteristic of generalist saprophagous species. Allidiostomatinae have mandibles with scissorial teeth and mola reduced; they also have sclerotized bursa copulatrix and sclerotized mandibular duct which opens on the dorsal side near condyle. Considering the present day development of alpha-taxonomy of most orphnine taxa, especially the speciose genus Orphnus, it seems premature to propose changes in higher classification of the subfamily. To clarify the phylogenetic position of the Orphninae among scarab beetles it is essential to include representative members of all taxa of orphnine lineage (sensu Browne, Scholtz, 1998) into the analysis.     

Carcinothrips: A genus of Acacia phyllode-glueing thrips with grossly enlarged fore legs (Thysanoptera: Phlaeothripidae)

Members of the Australian thrips genus Carcinothrips Moulton have the front legs modified into massive chelate structures, with elongate and expanded fore femora bearing a row of stout tubercles, and foreshortened fore tibiae that close onto these tubercles. Females of Carcinothrips leai , the only previously described species, and also of a new species, Carcinothrips tania , secrete a ring of glue from their anus to fix together pairs of Acacia phyllodes. Adults and larvae live within the shallow cell so produced, and feed on the phyllode walls of their domicile.