Selection of Temperature-Sensitive Mutants During Persistent Infection: Role in Maintenance of Persistent Newcastle Disease Virus Infections of L Cells

Virus mutants (NDV(pi)) recovered from L cells persistently infected with Newcastle disease virus (NDV, Herts strain) are temperature-sensitive (ts) at 43 C, although the wild-type virus (NDV(o)) which initiated the persistent infection replicates normally at that temperature. To study the relationship between the ts marker of NDV(pi) and the other properties which distinguish this virus from NDV(o), NDV(pi) ts(+) revertants were selected at the nonpermissive temperature and NDV(o) ts mutants were generated by treating NDV(o) with nitrous acid. Spontaneously-occurring ts mutants in the Herts NDV population were also isolated. The different virus populations were characterized with regard to plaque size, virulence for eggs, and thermal stability of infectivity, hemagglutinin, and neuraminidase. The NDV(pi) ts(+) revertants, although no longer temperature-sensitive, retained NDV(pi) properties, whereas both spontaneously-occurring and mutagen-induced ts mutants remained wild-type in their other properties. These findings showed that the properties which characterized NDV(pi) were independent of the ts marker. However, the ts marker and the other markers of NDV(pi) were coselected during the persistent infection, and the combination of those markers appeared to be important in the outcome of NDV infection of L cells. NDV(pi) replicated productively in L cells, whereas NDV(o), the NDV(pi) ts(+) revertants, and the spontaneously-occurring ts mutants all yielded covert infections in L cells. The role of the selection of ts mutants in persistent infection was confirmed as follows: L cells were persistently infected with NDV(pi) ts(+) revertants and NDV(o) ts mutants. Virus recovered from the persistently infected cultures after eight cell passages was always temperature-sensitive and of smaller plaque size than the parental virus in chicken embryo cell cultures. Similar results were obtained with virus recovered from L-cell cultures persistently infected with two other velogenic strains of NDV, the Texas-GB and Kansas-Man strains. These results strongly suggest that selection of ts mutants during the persistent infection was not random and played a role in establishment or maintenance of the persistent infection, or both.     

Detection of Newcastle disease virus using nucleic acid sequence-based amplification.

Newcastle disease (ND) is a contagious and widespread avian disease affecting most species of birds. ND virus (NDV) is the only member of the avian paramyxovirus serotype 1 (APMV1) causing ND outbreak in bird flocks. The technique of nucleic acid sequence-based amplification (NASBA) is a potential method to rapidly and reliably detect NDV isolates. Here, we describe an effective and unprecedented method for detecting NDV strains of all pathotypes. A conserved region of the fusion protein gene was used for designing oligonucleotides specific to all NDV pathotypes. The dynamic range of this NDV NASBA detection method is comparable to virus culture and therefore the NDV NASBA method is a potential alternative for NDV screening and surveillance.     

Overexpression of Newcastle disease virus (NDV) V protein enhances NDV production kinetics in chicken embryo fibroblasts

Newcastle disease virus (NDV) is not only one of the most economically important pathogen of poultry but also has a potential as anticancer virotherapy. The role of NDV V protein in virus-production kinetics was investigated using DF-1 cell-based production system. The presence of an anti-interferon (IFN)-alpha antibody resulted in enhanced NDV production kinetics in a dose-dependent manner by blocking binding of NDV-induced IFN to its receptor. To prepare DF-1 cell whose cellular IFN signaling is blocked efficiently, stable cell lines expressing either lentogenic or velogenic NDV V protein known as an IFN antagonist were established. The overexpression of NDV V protein enhanced NDV production kinetics and expedited the rate of NDV production, while it had no effect on Japanese encephalitis virus production. NDV V protein functions as an IFN antagonist by inhibiting the increase in type I IFNs by NDV infection. The IFN signals in cells expressing NDV V protein were weakened by decreased activation or expression of the dsRNA-activated enzymes. These IFN antagonist activities enhance rapid virus replication and spread in the early phase of viral infection and will be useful in improving the production of viral vaccine strains.     

鹅源新城疫病毒ZJ1株微型基因组的构建及其初步应用

在获得鹅源新城疫病毒ZJ1株全基因组序列的基础上,用增强型绿色荧光蛋白（eGFP）报告基因取代鹅源新城疫病毒ZJ1株整个编码区,只保留与病毒复制、转录和病毒粒子包装相关的调控序列,将其反向克隆入转录载体TVT7R(0.0)中,构建了该毒株的微型基因组。当转染用辅助病毒ZJ1株感染的Hep_2细胞时报告基因得到表达,表明此微型 基因组RNA可被辅助病毒提供的NP、P和L蛋白翻译。同时将该病毒NP、P和L蛋白基因分别克隆入真核表达载体pCI_neo中,构建了表达该病毒NP、P与L蛋白的辅助质粒,用此微型基因组对辅助质粒的表达产物进行了功能鉴定并对该病毒拯救过程中痘苗病毒的最适感染剂量进行了摸索。以上研究为该病毒的成功拯救及开展其它相关研究奠定了基础。     

Temperature-Sensitive Mutants Isolated from L Cells Persistently Infected with Newcastle Disease Virus

Virus mutants (NDV(pi)) isolated from L cells persistently infected with the Herts strain of Newcastle disease virus have been previously reported by this laboratory to differ from the wild-type virus (NDV(o)) in several physical and biological properties. It has now been determined that, in addition to these differences, the NDV(pi) mutants are also spontaneously selected temperature-sensitive mutants. The temperature sensitivity of 10 NDV(pi) clones was confirmed by temperature inhibition, plaquing efficiency, and single-cycle yield experiments. The cut-off temperature, at which more than 90% of virus replication is inhibited was between 41 and 42 C. All 10 NDV(pi) clones were also found to be defective in virus-specific ribonucleic acid (RNA) synthesis in infected chick embryo cells at 42 C and are tentatively classified as RNA(-). The possible relationships of the temperature sensitivity, the other NDV(pi) properties, and the maintenance of the persistently infected state are discussed.     

Cells Persistently Infected with Newcastle Disease Virus III. Thermal Stability of Hemagglutinin and Neuraminidase of a Mutant Isolated from Persistently Infected L Cells

Data were obtained which indicated the possible cause of the defective elution from erythrocytes of the mutant virus (NDV(pi)) isolated from L cells persistently infected with the Herts strain of Newcastle disease virus (NDV(o)). The chicken erythrocyte receptors for the mutant and wild-type viruses were equally sensitive to the action of Vibrio cholera filtrate neuraminidase; this suggests that the failure of NDV(pi) to elute from chicken erythrocytes is not due to a specific neuraminidase-resistant receptor for this virus on the erythrocyte membrane. There was no difference in the enzyme content of the intact virions of NDV(o) and NDV(pi) when tested with a soluble substrate, indicating that the inefficient elution of NDV(pi) was not due to a reduced enzyme content. The neuraminidase activity of intact NDV(pi) virions was significantly more stable at 55 C than the enzyme of NDV(o) virions, whereas the dissociated enzymes of the two viruses were inactivated at the same rate. On the basis of these findings, it seems likely there is a structural difference between the two viruses. The neuraminidase protein of the mutant NDV(pi) may be incorporated into the viral envelope in such a manner that it is prevented from reacting with the substrate in the erythrocyte membrane, although it can react with a soluble substrate. The hemagglutinin activity of both intact and disrupted NDV(pi) was significantly more resistant to thermal inactivation than that of the wild-type NDV(o). This finding suggests a genetic difference in the hemagglutinin protein of the two viruses.     

置换HN基因对新城疫病毒LaSota株致病力的影响

[目的]新城疫病毒的血凝素.神经氨酸酶(HN)和融合蛋白(F)在病毒装配、出芽、释放及侵入宿主细胞的过程中发挥关键作用,但HN对病毒致病力的影响程度尚不完全清楚.[方法]为探讨这一问题,本研究以中等毒力毒株Mukteswar的HN基因替换我国广泛应用的LaSota疫苗株HN基因,通过反向遗传操作技术拯救出嵌合病毒(rL-MuHN).[结果]rL-MuHN红细胞吸附能力较亲本株rLaSota无显著升高,具有相似的细胞融合活性;嵌合病毒ICPI由rLaSota株的0.36降为0,MDT≥90,IVPI=0与rLaSota株相同,保持典型低致病力缓发型特点不变.进一步以Mukteswar株F基因替换rL-MuHN的F基因,拯救出F和HN双基因替换嵌合病毒rL-MuFHN,尽管该病毒的细胞融合能力显著提高,但其MDT、ICPI和IVPI分别为98 h,0.59和0,显示F和HN双基因替换仍未能使嵌合新城疫病毒rL-MuFHN的致病力达到中等毒力毒株Mukteswar(MDT、ICPI及IVPI分别为46 h、1.32和0.64)的水平.[结论]试验结果表明,F及HN囊膜蛋白基因之外的病毒基因组骨架背景对病毒的致病性同样具有重要的决定性意义,不同HN蛋白对嵌合病毒的致病能力的影响不同,与供体毒株毒力无关;以流行野毒株HN替代rLaSota疫苗株构建抗原针对性更强的弱毒疫苗株存在技术可行性.     

Infection of mice with Newcastle disease virus inhibits the T suppressor afferent cell circuit which regulates contact sensitivity to picryl chloride

The interaction between Newcastle disease virus (NDV) and the suppressor cell circuit which regulates the induction phase of contact sensitivity reaction to picryl chloride (Pcl) was investigated. NDV infection impairs the activity of the T suppressor afferent cells (Ts-aff) which inhibit DNA synthesis in the draining lymph nodes of mice specifically sensitized with Pcl and the development of contact sensitivity. The inhibitory effect of NDV was evident when the virus was administered up to 2 days before or at the same time as the injection of picrylsulfonic acid; this effect required infectious virus, as NDV inactivated by ultraviolet irradiation failed to inhibit Ts-aff activity. Taken together with the previous finding that the T suppressor efferent cell is unaffected by NDV, the present results support the view that contact sensitivity reaction to picryl chloride is regulated by two distinct T-suppressor-cell circuits.     

Influence of Viral Envelope on Newcastle Disease Virus Infection

The adsorption characteristics of Newcastle disease virus (NDV) propagated in chicken cells (NDV-C) and in human cells (NDV-H) were examined. Adsorption experiments performed at different temperatures indicated that virus propagated in a particular cell infected that cell type more readily than did virus propagated in a different host. For example, NDV-C was more efficient in initiating infection of chicken cells at 22 C than was NDV-H; the reverse was true when human cells were employed. The results indicate that infection of susceptible cells by NDV is influenced by the host cell in which the virus was propagated. The data also suggest that NDV may be useful in studies on homologous and heterologous membrane-membrane interactions.     

Recombinant Newcastle Disease Virus as a Vaccine Vector

A complete cDNA clone of the Newcastle disease virus (NDV) vaccine strain Hitchner B1 was constructed, and infectious recombinant virus expressing an influenza virus hemagglutinin was generated by reverse genetics. The rescued virus induces a strong humoral antibody response against influenza virus and provides complete protection against a lethal dose of influenza virus challenge in mice, demonstrating the potential of recombinant NDV as a vaccine vector.     

新城疫病毒抗肿瘤作用的研究进展

新城疫病毒(newcastle disease virus,NDV)属副黏病毒,由于其安全性,自从被发现以来,即受到广大研究者们的关注。经过多年的研究,新城疫病毒在抑制人肝癌、恶性胸膜间皮瘤、纤维肉瘤以及头颈癌细胞方面都取得了可喜的成果。目前,新城疫病毒抑瘤作用的机制尚未完全阐明,研究表明主要涉及诱导肿瘤细胞凋亡,发挥抑瘤佐剂作用,增强免疫细胞活性及抑制肿瘤化疗耐药。NDV即使在缺氧环境下,也可以稳定的发挥抗肿瘤作用,且其强毒株具有高效的抗肿瘤作用。本文主要就近年来新城疫病毒抗肿瘤作用的研究进展进行了综述。     

新城疫病毒单克隆抗体的特性及应用

建立了8个分泌抗新城疫病毒(NDV)特异性单克隆抗体(McAb)的杂交瘤细胞株,根据它们的免疫生物学特性可以分为三种类型:(1)具有FA和ELISA特性(FN1、FN4、FN29、FN30、FN35、FNl22);(2)具有FA、ELISA和HI特性(FN7);(3)具有ELISA、HI特性和中和能力(FN106),根据FN30和FN106的ELISA试验,可将11个NDV毒株分为二种不同的抗原群,应用FN4-FITC,FN7-FITC和FN29-HRP试剂,对人工感染NDV和野外送检病例检测结果表明,单抗试剂的DFA阳性率(92.3％)高于病毒分离阳性率(87.2％),两种方法的符合率89.7％,这些单抗试剂用于临床诊断敏感性和特异性高,且方法快速、简便。     

Complete Genome Sequence of a Newcastle Disease Virus Strain Isolated from Broiler Breeder Flocks in China

In 2010 and 2011, several devastating Newcastle disease (ND) outbreaks occurred in China, affecting broilers, layers, and breeders. The CK-JSX1-201005 virus was isolated from broiler breeder flocks vaccinated with the classical ND virus (NDV) vaccine program, but laying rate decreased from 80% to 30 to 40% in the clinic. Here, we report the complete genome sequence and molecular characteristic of the CK-JSX1-201005 NDV. These findings provide additional insights into the genetic variation of NDV circulating in China and are useful for vaccine development for NDV.     

A recombinant Newcastle disease virus (NDV) expressing VP2 protein of infectious bursal disease virus (IBDV) protects against NDV and IBDV

Infectious bursal disease virus (IBDV) causes a highly immunosuppressive disease in chickens. Currently available, live IBDV vaccines can lead to generation of variant viruses. We have developed an alternative vaccine that will not create variant IBDV. By using the reverse genetics approach, we devised a recombinant Newcastle disease virus (NDV) vector from a commonly used vaccine strain LaSota to express the host-protective immunogen VP2 of a variant IBDV strain GLS-5. The gene encoding the VP2 protein of the IBDV was inserted into the most 3'-proximal locus of a full-length NDV cDNA for high-level expression. We successfully recovered the recombinant virus, rLaSota/VP2. The rLaSota/VP2 was genetically stable, at least up to 12 serial passages in chicken embryos, and was shown to express the VP2 protein. The VP2 protein was not incorporated into the virions of recombinant virus. Recombinant rLaSota/VP2 replicated to a titer similar to that of parental NDV strain LaSota in chicken embryos and cell cultures. To assess protective efficacy of the rLaSota/VP2, 2-day-old specific-pathogen-free chickens were vaccinated with the recombinant virus and challenged with a highly virulent NDV strain Texas GB or IBDV variant strain GLS-5 at 3 weeks postvaccination. Vaccination with rLaSota/VP2 generated antibody responses against both NDV and IBDV and provided 90% protection against NDV and IBDV. Booster immunization induced higher levels of antibody responses against both NDV and IBDV and conferred complete protection against both viruses. These results indicate that the recombinant NDV can be used as a vaccine vector for other avian pathogens.     

短发夹结构RNA干扰新城疫病毒的增殖

 以新城疫病毒（NDV）NP基因为标靶,构建3个细胞内表达发夹样结构小干扰RNA（shRNA）的质粒载体,在鸡胚成纤维细胞（CEF）和鸡胚上进行了RNAi试验,筛选出一个有效抑制病毒复制的小分子ndv1.用阳离子脂质体转染试剂Silent-fect 将ndv1转染CEF,以不相关shRNA质粒载体HK为阴性对照,4 h后接种NDV,与对照相比,干涉组在病毒感染后3 h NP基因的表达量降低2.3倍,6 h 降低21.1倍,9 h降低9.8倍;ndv1能在48 h内完全阻断NDV在CEF中的增殖,延缓病变出现时间,减轻病变程度.将Silent-fect-ndv1混合物与NDV同时注入10日龄SPF鸡胚绒毛尿囊腔,能使10⁵ ELD₅₀NDV感染后17 h鸡胚尿囊液中病毒增殖量减少94.4%,使10⁶ ELD₅₀NDV感染后17　h鸡胚尿囊液中病毒增殖量减少62.5%.实验结果证实,在CEF中存在RNAi机制,抑制NDV NP基因的表达能有效阻断该病毒增殖,说明NP基因在NDV复制过程中起重要作用.实验结果为进一步利用RNAi技术在CEF和鸡胚中研究病毒基因组功能及筛选抗病毒小分子奠定了基础.     

The large polymerase protein is associated with the virulence of Newcastle disease virus

Naturally occurring Newcastle disease virus (NDV) strains vary greatly in virulence, ranging from no apparent infection to severe disease causing 100% mortality in chickens. The viral determinants of NDV virulence are not completely understood. Cleavage of the fusion protein is required for the initiation of infection, and it acts as a determinant of virulence. The attachment protein HN was found to play a minor role in virulence. In this study, we have evaluated the role of the internal proteins (N, P, and L) in NDV virulence by using a chimeric reverse-genetics approach. The N, P, and L genes were exchanged individually between an avirulent NDV strain, LaSota, and an intermediate virulent NDV strain, Beaudette C (BC), and the N and P genes were also exchanged together. The recovered chimeric viruses were evaluated for their pathogenicity in the natural host, chickens. Our results showed that the pathogenicities of N and P chimeric viruses were similar to those of their respective parental viruses, indicating that the N and P genes probably play minor roles in virulence. However, replacement of the L gene of BC with that of LaSota significantly increased the pathogenicity of the L-chimeric virus, suggesting that the L gene probably contributes to the virulence of NDV. The L-chimeric BC virus was found to replicate at a 100-fold-higher level than its parental virus in chicken brain, suggesting that the increase in pathogenicity may be due to the increased replication level of the chimeric virus. Our findings offer new insights into the pathogenesis of NDV infection.     

Role of macrophages in bypassing the inhibitory activity of Newcastle disease virus on the T-suppressor-cell circuit which regulates contact sensitivity to picryl chloride

The interaction between the paramyxovirus of Newcastle disease virus (NDV) and the T-suppressor-cell circuit which regulates the expression phase of contact sensitivity reaction to picryl chloride was investigated. NDV infection impairs the T-acceptor-cell (Tacc) activity, as demonstrated by the failure of Tacc from mice infected with NDV both on Day 0 and on Day 3 to release the nonspecific inhibitor of the passive transfer of contact sensitivity. Tacc from NDV-infected mice fail to bind appreciable amounts of exogenous T suppressor factor, so indicating that the virus eliminates this T-cell population. However, macrophages from mice infected with NDV are able to release a nonspecific inhibitor of the passive transfer of contact sensitivity, indicating that the inhibition of Tacc activity in mice infected with NDV is bypassed by macrophages, so that the T-suppressor circuit is functionally active in NDV-infected mice. The mechanism of the selective inhibition of the Tacc activity by NDV is discussed.     

Cells Persistently Infected with Newcastle Disease Virus: II. Ribonucleic Acid and Protein Synthesis in Cells Infected with Mutants Isolated from Persistently Infected L Cells

A comparison of the replication patterns in L cells and in chick embryo (CE) cell cultures was carried out with the Herts strain of Newcastle disease virus (NDV(o)) and with a mutant (NDV(pi)) isolated from persistently infected L cells. A significant amount of virus progeny, 11 plaque-forming units (PFU)/cell, was synthesized in L cells infected with NDV(o), but the infectivity remained cell-associated and disappeared without being detectable in the medium. In contrast, in L cells infected with NDV(pi), progeny virus (30 PFU/cell) was released efficiently upon maturation. It is suggested that the term "covert" rather than "abortive" be used to describe the infection of L cells with NDV(o). In both L and CE cells, the latent period of NDV(pi) was 2 to 4 hr longer than for NDV(o). The delay in synthesis of viral ribonucleic acid (RNA) in the case of NDV(pi) coincided with the delay in the inhibition of host RNA and protein synthesis. Although both NDV(o) and NDV(pi) produced more progeny and more severe cell damage in CE cells than in L cells, the shut-off of host functions was significantly less efficient in CE cells than in L cells. Paradoxically, no detectable interferon was produced in CE cells by either of the viruses, whereas in L cells most of the interferon appeared in the medium after more than 90% of host protein synthesis was inhibited. These results suggest that the absence of induction of interferon synthesis in CE cells infected with NDV is not related to the general shut-off of host cell synthetic mechanisms but rather to the failure of some more specific event to occur. In spite of the fact that NDV(pi) RNA synthesis commenced 2 to 4 hr later than that of NDV(o), interferon was first detected in the medium 8 hr after infection with both viruses. This finding suggests that there is no relation between viral RNA synthesis and the induction of interferon synthesis.     

Autophagy Benefits the Replication of Newcastle Disease Virus in Chicken Cells and Tissues

Newcastle disease virus (NDV) is an important avian pathogen. We previously reported that NDV triggers autophagy in U251 glioma cells, resulting in enhanced virus replication. In this study, we investigated whether NDV triggers autophagy in chicken cells and tissues to enhance virus replication. We demonstrated that NDV infection induced steady-state autophagy in chicken-derived DF-1 cells and in primary chicken embryo fibroblast (CEF) cells, evident through increased double- or single-membrane vesicles, the accumulation of green fluorescent protein (GFP)-LC3 dots, and the conversion of LC3-I to LC3-II. In addition, we measured autophagic flux by monitoring p62/SQSTM1 degradation, LC3-II turnover, and GFP-LC3 lysosomal delivery and proteolysis, to confirm that NDV infection induced the complete autophagic process. Inhibition of autophagy by pharmacological inhibitors and RNA interference reduced virus replication, indicating an important role for autophagy in NDV infection. Furthermore, we conducted in vivo experiments and observed the conversion of LC3-I to LC3-II in heart, liver, spleen, lung, and kidney of NDV-infected chickens. Regulation of the induction of autophagy with wortmannin, chloroquine, or starvation treatment affects NDV production and pathogenesis in tissues of both lung and intestine; however, treatment with rapamycin, an autophagy inducer of mammalian cells, showed no detectable changes in chicken cells and tissues. Moreover, administration of the autophagy inhibitor wortmannin increased the survival rate of NDV-infected chickens. Our studies provide strong evidence that NDV infection induces autophagy which benefits NDV replication in chicken cells and tissues.     

Incorporation of Host Complement Regulatory Proteins into Newcastle Disease Virus Enhances Complement Evasion

Newcastle disease virus (NDV), an avian paramyxovirus, is inherently tumor selective and is currently being considered as a clinical oncolytic virus and vaccine vector. In this study, we analyzed the effect of complement on the neutralization of NDV purified from embryonated chicken eggs, a common source for virus production. Fresh normal human serum (NHS) neutralized NDV by multiple pathways of complement activation, independent of neutralizing antibodies. Neutralization was associated with C3 deposition and the activation of C2, C3, C4, and C5 components. Interestingly, NDV grown in mammalian cell lines was resistant to complement neutralization by NHS. To confirm whether the incorporation of regulators of complement activity (RCA) into the viral envelope afforded complement resistance, we grew NDV in CHO cells stably transfected with CD46 or HeLa cells, which strongly express CD46 and CD55. NDV grown in RCA-expressing cells was resistant to complement by incorporating CD46 and CD55 on virions. Mammalian CD46 and CD55 molecules on virions exhibited homologous restriction, since chicken sera devoid of neutralizing antibodies to NDV were able to effectively neutralize these virions. The incorporation of chicken RCA into NDV produced in embryonated eggs similarly provided species specificity toward chicken sera.