Effects of climatic change on chemistry and vegetation of peatlands,with special reference to interaction with atmospheric deposition

This paper summarizes expected changes in hydrology, chemistry and biota of Dutch peatlands (bogs, fens and moorland pools) caused by climatic changes resulting from the Greenhouse Effect. Special attention is paid to the interaction with atmospheric acid deposition. In both bogs and moorland pools prolonged drought periods may cause deleterious effects on biota because of the release of atmospherically-derived reduced sulphur compounds. In fenlands negative changes will be caused by eutrophication due to increased supply of allochtonous water. Long-term water and nutrient budgets are needed, along with better predictions of expected climate changes, to develop models of changes in hydrology, chemistry and biota of peatlands.     

The effect of altered macroclimate on N-fixation by boreal feather mosses

Plant productivity is predicted to increase in boreal forests owing to climate change, but this may depend on whether N inputs from biological N-fixation also increases. We evaluated how alteration of climatic factors affects N input from a widespread boreal N-fixer, i.e. cyanobacteria associated with the feather moss Pleurozium schreberi. In each of 10 forest stands in northern Sweden, we established climate-change plots, including a control (ambient climate) plot and three plots experiencing a +2°C temperature increase, an approximately threefold reduction in precipitation frequency, and either 0.07, 0.29 or 1.16 times normal summer precipitation. We monitored N-fixation in these plots five times between 2007 and 2009, and three times in 2010 after climate treatments ended to assess their recovery. Warmer temperatures combined with less frequent precipitation reduced feather moss moisture content and N-fixation rates regardless of total precipitation. After climate treatments ended, recovery of N-fixation rates occurred on the scale of weeks to months, suggesting resilience of N-fixation to changes in climatic conditions. These results suggest that modelling of biological N-inputs in boreal forests should emphasize precipitation frequency and evaporative water loss in conjunction with elevated temperature rather than absolute changes in mean precipitation.     

不同经营模式对川西亚高山天然次生林林地水文效应的影响

天然次生林是川西亚高山林区经历大规模砍伐后形成的主要森林类型之一,是我国西南林区水源涵养林的重要组成部分。以不同经营模式(抚育经营、清林+补植经营以及封育经营)的川西亚高山次生桦木林和桦木、岷江冷杉混交林为研究对象,通过样方取样法获取和分析了林地苔藓、枯落物和土壤的水文指标。结果表明,与封山育林经营相比,抚育经营下的两种林型的苔藓最大持水率均显著升高(F=8.147,P=0.010;F=15.525,P=0.006)、桦木林的蓄积量显著降低(F=4.979,P=0.022),而苔藓最大持水量变化不显著;混交林则均无显著变化。在清林+补植经营下,混交林苔藓水文效应变化不显著(F=2.280,P=0.183),而桦木林虽然苔藓最大持水率无显著变化(F=4.072,P=0.098),但蓄积量的显著降低(F=3.536,P=0.044)导致了其最大持水量的降低(F=3.782,P=0.042)。两种经营方式基本上促进了天然林的枯落物最大持水率、降低了林下枯落物蓄积量;其中抚育经营效果更显著,但两种经营方式下枯落物最大持水量变化不显著。两种经营方式下,桦木林和混交林的林下土壤容重均降低(F=10.715,P0.01;F=5.148,P0.05),同时桦木林土壤最大持水量增加(F=4.499,P0.05),其中抚育经营的影响程度都更显著。从4年来的短期效应来看,两种经营方式均对天然林的林地持水能力具有促进作用,抚育经营较清林+补植经营更显著,但这仅是短期的结果,两种经营方式对于退化天然林水文以及其他生态功能恢复的长期影响还有待于进一步的观测研究。     

Forest Pattern, Fire, and Climatic Change in the Sierra Nevada

In the Sierra Nevada, distributions of forest tree species are largely controlled by the soil-moisture balance. Changes in temperature or precipitation as a result of increased greenhouse gas concentrations could lead to changes in species distributions. In addition, climatic change could increase the frequency and severity of wildfires. We used a forest gap model developed for Sierra Nevada forests to investigate the potential sensitivity of these forests to climatic change, including a changing fire regime. Fuel moisture influences the fire regime and couples fire to climate. Fires are also affected by fuel loads, which accumulate according to forest structure and composition. These model features were used to investigate the complex interactions between climate, fire, and forest dynamics. Eight hypothetical climate-change scenarios were simulated, including two general circulation model (GCM) predictions of a 2 × CO₂ world. The response of forest structure,species composition, and the fire regime to these changes in the climate were examined at four sites across an elevation gradient. Impacts on woody biomass and species composition as a result of climatic change were site specific and depended on the environmental constraints of a site and the environmental tolerances of the tree species simulated. Climatic change altered the fire regime both directly and indirectly. Fire frequency responded directly to climate's influence on fuel moisture, whereas fire extent was affected by changes that occurred in either woody biomass or species composition. The influence of species composition on fuel-bed bulk density was particularly important. Future fires in the Sierra Nevada could be both more frequent and of greater spatial extent if GCM predictions prove true. Received 5 May 1998; accepted 4 November 1998.     

Precipitation frequency alters peatland ecosystem structure and CO2 exchange: Contrasting effects on moss,sedge, and shrub communities

Climate projections forecast a redistribution of seasonal precipitation for much of the globe into fewer, larger events spaced between longer dry periods, with negligible changes in seasonal rainfall totals. This intensification of the rainfall regime is expected to alter near‐surface water availability, which will affect plant performance and carbon uptake. This could be especially important in peatland systems, where large stores of carbon are tightly coupled to water surpluses limiting decomposition. Here, we examined the role of precipitation frequency on vegetation growth and carbon dioxide (CO₂) balances for communities dominated by a Sphagnum moss, a sedge, and an ericaceous shrub in a cool temperate poor fen. Field plots and laboratory monoliths received one of three rainfall frequency treatments, ranging from one event every three days to one event every 14 days, while total rain delivered in a two‐week cycle and the entire season to each treatment remained the same. Separating incident rain into fewer but larger events increased vascular cover in all peatland communities: vascular plant cover increased 6× in the moss‐dominated plots, nearly doubled in the sedge plots, and tripled in the shrub plots in Low‐Frequency relative to High‐Frequency treatments. Gross ecosystem productivity was lowest in moss communities receiving low‐frequency rain, but higher in sedge and shrub communities under the same conditions. Net ecosystem exchange followed this pattern: fewer events with longer dry periods increased CO₂ flux to the atmosphere from the moss while vascular plant‐dominated communities became more of a sink for CO₂. Results of this study suggest that changes to rainfall frequency already occurring and predicted to continue will lead to increased vascular plant cover in peatlands and will impact their carbon‐sink function.     

Ecohydrological gradients and their restoration on the periphery of extracted peatlands

The moss layer transfer technique is effective at restoring extracted peatland surfaces. However, remnant peatlands persist on the periphery of extracted surfaces. These remnant peatlands drop steeply to extracted surfaces, producing artificial ecotones that are more challenging to restore. We asked to what degree natural ecotones at undisturbed reference fens can act as models for the restoration of artificial ecotones around an extracted peatland, and whether management actions can ameliorate conditions in artificial ecotones. We compared changes in elevation, water table, peat, and multiple vegetation characteristics between natural ecotones and unmanaged artificial ecotones. We then clear‐cut peripheral strips, completely filled perimeter canals, and smoothed peripheral slopes around sections of the extracted surfaces to assess whether hydrological conditions improved. Without management, artificial ecotones are not good models of natural ecotones. The elevation gradient is steep, and water tables drop steeply within 8 m of blocked perimeter canals, with possible effects at 25 m. The consequent vegetation had denser tree saplings, faster tree growth, almost no moss cover, and low moss species richness. After these management actions, water tables increased to within approximately 5 cm of those along natural ecotones. Future study is required to assess the extent of vegetation recovery, but these results hold promise for a more holistic rehabilitation of ecotones on the periphery of extracted peatland surfaces. We present recommendations to optimize the management actions on the periphery of extracted peatlands.     

Nitrous oxide and methane fluxes of a pristine slope mire in the German National Park Harz Mountains

Pristine peatlands covered by Histosols (bogs and fens) with high water table and a restricted oxygen (O₂) availability are known to have low emissions of nitrous oxide (N₂O) but may be a significant source for atmospheric methane (CH₄) which are both important greenhouse gases. For the first time N₂O and CH₄ fluxes of a pristine slope mire in the German Harz Mountains have been monitored. Previously reported peatlands are characterised by anaerobic conditions due to high water table levels. Slope mires monitored here receive O₂ through slope water inflow. Gas fluxes have been monitored deploying closed chamber method on a central non-forested area and a forested area at the periphery of the slope mire. By means of groundwater piezometers water table levels, ammonium and nitrate contents as well as hydro-chemical variables like oxygen content and redox potential of the mire pore water have been concurrently measured with trace gas fluxes at both monitoring sites of the slope mire. The slope mire took up small amounts of atmospheric methane at a rate of −0.02 ± 0.01 kg C ha⁻¹ year⁻¹ revealing no significant difference between the forested and non-forested site. Higher uptake rates were observed during low water table level. In contrast to pristine peatlands influx of oxygen containing pore water into slope mire does limit reduction processes and resultant CH₄ emission. N₂O fluxes of the forested and non-forested sites of the slope mire did not differ and amounted to 0.25 ± 0.44 kg N ha⁻¹ year⁻¹. Higher emissions were observed at low water table levels and during thawing periods. In spite of favourable conditions N₂O fluxes of the slope mire have been comparable to those of pristine peatlands.     

Influence of nutrients,disturbances and site conditions on carbon stocks along a boreal forest transect in central Canada

The interacting influence of disturbances and nutrient dynamics on aboveground biomass, forest floor, and mineral soil C stocks was assessed as part of the Boreal Forest Transect Case Study in central Canada. This transect covers a range of forested biomes–-from transitional grasslands (aspen parkland) in the south, through boreal forests, and into the forested subarctic woodland in the north. The dominant forest vegetation species are aspen, jack pine and spruce. Disturbances influence biomass C stocks in boreal forests by determining its age-class structure, altering nutrient dynamics, and changing the total nutrient reserves of the stand. Nitrogen is generally the limiting nutrient in these systems, and N availability determines biomass C stocks by affecting the forest dynamics (growth rates and site carrying capacity) throughout the life cycle of a forest stand. At a given site, total and available soil N are determined both by biotic factors (such as vegetation type and associated detritus pools) and abiotic factors (such as N deposition, soil texture, and drainage). Increasing clay content, lower temperatures and reduced aeration are expected to lead to reduced N mineralization and, ultimately, lower N availability and reduced forest productivity. Forest floor and mineral soil C stocks vary with changing balances between complex sets of organic carbon inputs and outputs. The changes in forest floor and mineral soil C pools at a given site, however, are strongly related to the historical changes in biomass at that site. Changes in N availability alter the processes regulating both inputs and outputs of carbon to soil stocks. N availability in turn is shaped by past disturbance history, litter fall rate, site characteristics and climatic factors. Thus, understanding the life-cycle dynamics of C and N as determined by age-class structure (disturbances) is essential for quantifying past changes in forest level C stocks and for projecting their future change.     

Estimation of forest cover extent over peatlands and paludified shallow-peat lands in Russia

On the basis of the geoinformational system “Peatland ecosystems of Russia”, developed at the Institute of Forest Science (Russian Academy of Sciences), and the Map of Forests of Russia (2004), the areas of forest cover on peatlands (139 mln ha) and on paludified shallow-peat lands (230 mln ha) were estimated. Trees are present on 38% of the peatland area, of which more than half (21%) is sparsely treed. Forests (peatland forests) cover only 17% (24 mln ha). The majority of peatlands (over 62%) are open. More than half of the paludified shallow-peat habitats are also open, and the remainder (23 and 24%) are almost equally divided between forested and sparsely forested types.     

The Recent Trend of the Biodiversity Dynamic of Biotic Communities in Forest-Steppe Oak Forests

Comparative studies of the structure and diversity of model biotic communities (grass cover, soil macrofauna, xylotrophic fungi and xylophilous coleopterans) were carried out in oak forests of the core and buffer zones of the Voronezh biosphere reserve. The functional structure of the communities in the buffer zone had clearly expressed nemorose features characteristic of the broad-leaved zonal forests, while that in the core zone demonstrated more xerophilous patterns with a wide participation of meadow-steppe elements. The restricted anthropogenic activity in the buffer zone enhances the mesophytization of the oak forest habitats. The complete elimination of anthropogenic pressure in the core zone for two last decades results in the formation of a peculiar, dynamic pattern of forest ecosystems, which corresponds to the zonal climatic conditions.     

Photosynthesis, chlorophyll fluorescence and spectral reflectance in Sphagnum moss at varying water contents

Moss samples from the Fluxnet-Canada western peatland flux station in the Boreal Region of Alberta were measured in the laboratory to obtain the net photosynthesis rate and chlorophyll fluorescence of the moss under controlled environmental conditions, including the regulation of moss water content, simultaneously with measurements of moss spectral reflectance. One objective was to test whether the photochemical reflectance index (PRI) detected changes in moss photosynthetic light-use efficiency that were consistent with short-term (minutes to hours) changes in xanthophyll cycle pigments and associated changes in non-photochemical quenching (NPQ), as recorded by chlorophyll fluorescence. The rate of net photosynthesis was strongly inhibited by water content at values exceeding approximately 9 (fresh weight/dry weight) and declined as the water content fell below values of approximately 8. Chlorophyll fluorescence measurements of maximum photosystem II efficiency generally remained high until the water content was reduced from the maximum of about 20 to values of approximately 10–11, and then declined with further reductions in moss water content. A significant linear decline in NPQ was observed as moss water content was reduced from maximum to low water content values. There was a strong negative correlation between changes in NPQ and PRI. These data suggest that PRI measurements are a good proxy for short-term shifts in photosynthetic activity in Sphagnum moss. A second objective was to test how accurately the water band index (WBI, ratio of reflectance at 900 and 970 nm) recorded changes in moss water content during controlled laboratory studies. Strong linear relationships occurred between changes in moss water content and the WBI, although the slopes of the linear relationships were significantly different among sample replicates. Therefore, WBI appeared to be a useful tool to determine sample-specific water content without destructive measurements.     

Global warming and the export of dissolved organic carbon from boreal peatlands

Peatlands occupy approximately 15% of boreal and sub-arctic regions, contain approximately one third of the world's soil carbon pool, and supply most of the dissolved organic carbon (DOC) entering boreal lakes and rivers and the Arctic Ocean. The high latitudes occupied by these peatlands are expected to see the greatest amount of climatic warming in the next several decades. In addition to increasing temperatures, climatic change could also affect the position of the water-table level and discharge from these peatlands. Changes in temperature, water tables, and discharge could affect delivery of DOC to downstream ecosystems where it exerts significant control over productivity, biogeochemical cycles, and attenuation of visible and UV radiation. We experimentally warmed and controlled water tables while measuring discharge in a factorial experiment in large mesocosms containing peat monoliths and intact plant communities from a bog and fen to determine the effects of climate change on DOC budgets. We show that the DOC budget is controlled largely by changes in discharge rather than by any effect of warming or position of the water-table level on DOC concentrations. Furthermore, we identify a critical discharge rate in bogs and fens for which the DOC budget switches from net export to net retention. We also demonstrate an exponential increase in trace gas CO₂–C and CH₄–C emissions coincident with increased retention of dissolved organic carbon from boreal peatlands.     

A moss “canopy” – Small-scale differences in microclimate and physiological traits in Tortula ruralis

We studied vertical changes in light regime and water content (WC) in combination with vertical gradients in several physiological response variables, i.e. net CO₂ uptake, chlorophyll content and nitrogen content in the moss species, Tortula ruralis. The rate of light attenuation within the moss turf, which was determined with a custom-made optical microprobe system, was strongly dependent on plant WC. Curling movements of the upper leaves associated with the beginning desiccation of the uppermost parts of a turf allowed increased penetration of light to greater depth with decreasing WC. The capacity to fix carbon declined steeply with depth: below ca. 9 mm no net CO₂ uptake occurred, even when removing the shading parts above. The potential rates of photosynthesis in different depths were highly correlated with chlorophyll content, but not nitrogen content.     

The effects of climatic pattern on lichen productivity: Cetraria cucullata (Bell.) Ach. in the arctic tundra of northern Alaska

Summary The climatic control of productivity for two populations of the lichen Cetraria cucullata (Bell.) Ach. growing in the arctic tundra of northern Alaska (70°28N, 157°23W) was examined. Respiratory losses of carbon vary with tissue temperature, tissue water content, and time since wetting. Potential net photosynthetic gains of carbon are affected by photon flux density, tissue temperature, and water content. The net CO₂ exchange responses of populations growing on ridge tundra and on upland tundra differ and these differences reflect possible adaptation to the normal environmental regimes in the two habitats. Simulation of the lichen's net carbon balance using continuous hourly records of photon flux density, temperature, and water content for the unusually dry period June 28 through July 17, 1977 show that lichen biomass is actually lost during climatic regimes leading to frequent but short periods of lichen metabolic activity. This result is confirmed by the negative relative growth rates measured for C. cucullata over the same monitoring period. This observed loss of biomass may be attributable to depletion of carbon reserves to reactivate dormant metabolism without sufficiently long periods favorable for net photosynthetic activity to replenish the lost reserves. These results illustrate that environmental limits exist on the success of the dormancy strategy characteristic of lichen and moss carbon metabolism.     

Changes in the forest cover after intense logging in southern taiga of the russian federation

Specific features of the forest cover formation after industrial timber cutting during a period of 50 years in southern taiga spruce forests (Kostroma oblast) are described. The statistical analysis of the forest use intensity, the forested area, and the dynamics of the age and species structure of forests was performed. Plans of forest stands obtained for five inspections and taxation databases of 1954 and 1997 were also used. The potentialities of analyzing the structure of forest mapping units using means of overlay in the geoinformation system are considered. Parameters for distinguishing forest compartments were calculated. The dynamics of these parameters reflect the natural development of forest, effects of adverse environmental factors, economic history of the region, and specific features of individual interpretation of the survey materials in forest management.     

Net primary production of the grass and swamp ecosystems

Paper presents estimates of above-ground, below-ground, and total production in grasslands, meadows and steppe of the forest-steppe and steppe regions, and production of moss peat ecosystems of the northern, middle, and southern taiga forests. Total production varies in grasslands from 520 to 6670 g/(m² year) and depends on hydrothermal conditions and the regime of the use of herbage, in moss peat it varies from 360 to 1970 g/(m² year) and is determined by the biology of predominant species, conditions of fluviomineral feeding and heat supply.     

Stability in the patterns of long‐term development and growth of the Canadian spruce–moss forest

Aim The spruce–moss forest is the main forest ecosystem of the North American boreal forest. We used stand structure and fire data to examine the long‐term development and growth of the spruce–moss ecosystem. We evaluate the stability of the forest with time and the conditions needed for the continuing regeneration, growth and re‐establishment of black spruce (Picea mariana) trees. Location The study area occurs in Québec, Canada, and extends from 70°00′ to 72°00′ W and 47°30′ to 56°00′ N. Methods A spatial inventory of spruce–moss forest stands was performed along 34 transects. Nineteen spruce–moss forests were selected. A 500 m² quadrat at each site was used for radiocarbon and tree‐ring dating of time since last fire (TSLF). Size structure and tree regeneration in each stand were described based on diameter distribution of the dominant and co‐dominant tree species [black spruce and balsam fir (Abies balsamea)]. Results The TSLF of the studied forests ranges from 118 to 4870 cal. yr bp . Forests < 325 cal. yr bp are dominated by trees of the first post‐fire cohort and are not yet at equilibrium, whereas older forests show a reverse‐J diameter distribution typical of mature, old‐growth stands. The younger forests display faster height and radial growth‐rate patterns than the older forests, due to factors associated with long‐term forest development. Each of the stands examined established after severe fires that consumed all the soil organic material. Main conclusions Spruce–moss forests are able to self‐regenerate after fires that consume the organic layer, thus allowing seed regeneration at the soil surface. In the absence of fire the forests can remain in an equilibrium state. Once the forests mature, tree productivity eventually levels off and becomes stable. Further proof of the enduring stability of these forests, in between fire periods, lies in the ages of the stands. Stands with a TSLF of 325–4870 cal. yr bp all exhibited the same stand structure, tree growth rates and species characteristics. In the absence of fire, the spruce–moss forests are able to maintain themselves for thousands of years with no apparent degradation or change in forest type.     

The features of peat-accumulation process at the southern slope of the Great Vasyugan Bog

The peat-forming process of the southern margin of the taiga zone in West Siberia depends on climatic fluctuations, which have an effect on the peat stratigraphy and chemical composition of peat. It is shown that the contemporary warming does not interrupt the bog formation, which is due to the lateral flooding by water came from adjoining peatlands and periodical waterlogging of floodplain depressions during the years of excessive water supply.     

Fine-root growth in a forested bog is seasonally dynamic,but shallowly distributed in nutrient-poor peat

Background and aims

Fine roots contribute to ecosystem carbon, water, and nutrient fluxes through resource acquisition, respiration, exudation, and turnover, but are understudied in peatlands. We aimed to determine how the amount and timing of fine-root growth in a forested, ombrotrophic bog varied across gradients of vegetation density, peat microtopography, and changes in environmental conditions across the growing season and throughout the peat profile.

Methods

We quantified fine-root peak standing crop and growth using non-destructive minirhizotron technology over a two-year period, focusing on the dominant woody species in the bog: Picea mariana, Larix laricina, Rhododendron groenlandicum, and Chamaedaphne calyculata.

Results

The fine roots of trees and shrubs were concentrated in raised hummock microtopography, with more tree roots associated with greater tree densities and a unimodal peak in shrub roots at intermediate tree densities. Fine-root growth tended to be seasonally dynamic, but shallowly distributed, in a thin layer of nutrient-poor, aerobic peat above the growing season water table level.

Conclusions

The dynamics and distribution of fine roots in this forested ombrotrophic bog varied across space and time in response to biological, edaphic, and climatic conditions, and we expect these relationships to be sensitive to projected environmental changes in northern peatlands.

     

Forests growing under dry conditions have higher hydrological resilience to drought than do more humid forests

More frequent and intense droughts are projected during the next century, potentially changing the hydrological balances in many forested catchments. Although the impacts of droughts on forest functionality have been vastly studied, little attention has been given to studying the effect of droughts on forest hydrology. Here, we use the Budyko framework and two recently introduced Budyko metrics (deviation and elasticity) to study the changes in the water yields (rainfall minus evapotranspiration) of forested catchments following a climatic drought (2006–2010) in pine forests distributed along a rainfall gradient (P = 280–820 mm yr^?1) in the Eastern Mediterranean (aridity factor = 0.17–0.56). We use a satellite‐based model and meteorological information to calculate the Budyko metrics. The relative water yield ranged from 48% to 8% (from the rainfall) in humid to dry forests and was mainly associated with rainfall amount (increasing with increased rainfall amount) and bedrock type (higher on hard bedrocks). Forest elasticity was larger in forests growing under drier conditions, implying that drier forests have more predictable responses to drought, according to the Budyko framework, compared to forests growing under more humid conditions. In this context, younger forests were shown more elastic than older forests. Dynamic deviation, which is defined as the water yield departure from the Budyko curve, was positive in all forests (i.e., less‐than‐expected water yields according to Budyko's curve), increasing with drought severity, suggesting lower hydrological resistance to drought in forests suffering from larger rainfall reductions. However, the dynamic deviation significantly decreased in forests that experienced relatively cooler conditions during the drought period. Our results suggest that forests growing under permanent dry conditions might develop a range of hydrological and eco‐physiological adjustments to drought leading to higher hydrological resilience. In the context of predicted climate change, such adjustments are key factors in sustaining forested catchments in water‐limited regions.