Freemartinism in red deer (Cervus elaphus L.)

Several mixed-sex twins were produced by red deer treated with progesterone and pregnant mare's serum gonadotrophin. Of seven females karyotyped, two were 68,XX/68,XY chimeras. One male had the same chimeric karyotype as its female co-twin. These are the first reported cases of freemartinism in deer.     

Malignant melanoma in a captive red deer (Cervus elaphus elaphus)

We report a case of malignant melanoma in a captive red deer (Cervus elaphus elaphus). The primary lesion was on the plantar aspect of the right pastern and infiltrated the surrounding skin, but not underlying tendons or bone. Diffuse metastasis to the regional lymph nodes had occurred. Histologically, lesions were characterized by large numbers of variably pigmented epithelioid cells with a high degree of nuclear atypia and many mitotic figures. This is the first reported case of this neoplasm in red deer.     

Spatial organization of female groups in red deer (Cervus elaphus L.)

The spatial organization of female groups in red deer was studied in the periods before and after the rut, in a study area located in the central Sierra Morena (Córdoba, Spain). The study was carried out in terms of age-sex classes, and was based on direct observation and video recording.Movement order proved to be linear, and highlighted the role of the mature hind as group leader and potential group protector. Two tendencies were found in the calf: to place itself behind the adult female, and to take up a central position in the group. With regard to relationships of spatial proximity, the mature hind and the calf tended to keep separate from the rest of the group both in the period before and after the rut. The yearling male became progressively independent of the matriarchal group, tending in the second period of study to associate with individuals from its own age-sex class.     

Morphogenesis of the nasal apparatus of the red deer (Cervus elaphus L.)

Three stages of morphogenesis of the nasal apparatus of the red deer (Cervus elaphus L.) were studied. Many ancestral traits reminiscent of relationships in other mammals and even in reptiles were found, including a cart, ectochoanalis, paraseptal cartilages, the septum nasi and its ventral trabecular enlargement, a lamina transversalis ant., clear separation of the cart, parietotectalis and cart, paranasalis from each other and a crista semicircularis. A maxilloturbinale, was present, but not a nasoturbinale. The main specific features were a completely rostrally localized, peculiar cartilaginous structure in the preseptal space, for which there is as yet no morphological explanation, and pronounced bulging of the cartilaginous wall of the nasal capsule in a ventrolateral direction, level with the rostral region of the olfactory labyrinth (caudally to the aboral end of the maxilloturbinale). In the early stages of morphogenesis, it was found that the ethmoturbinalia might be formed by fusion of the edges of the anlagen of the paranasal cartilage and the lamina orbitonasalis. The structure of the olfactory labyrinth was reminiscent of its organization in the sheep embryo; the recessus frontalis was completed by a series of frontoturbinal recesses and frontoturbinalia, which are poorly developed in the red deer, however. The floor of the caudal part of the nasal capsule was very little developed and there was no cart, paraseptalis post.     

Activity patterns of female red deer (Cervus elaphus L.) in the Alps

Summary During 1976 to 1978 in the Bavarian Alps (Southern West Germany) the activity patterns of nine female red deer have been studied using radio-telemetry. The daily sum total of activity shows a marked annual cycle, ranging from about 7 h in winter to some 15 h in summer. It becomes obvious that the duration of activity during solar day, night and twilight is not only due to the length of these three periods but also varies independently in the course of the year. The daily pattern of activity reveals a bimodal 24-h rhythm throughout the year. Its two peaks coincide with dawn and dusk. Their temporal position shifts according to the seasonally changing LD-ratio. Also the relative height of the two peaks varies in the course of the year; they decrease in the summer months in favour of more activity during the light time. These daily and annual rhythms rely on corresponding changes in the pattern of activity bursts. In some cases the sequences of activity bursts reflect also influences of weather conditions or of differently structured habitats on the animals' behaviour. The possible influences of some endogenous and exogenous factors on the activity patterns are discussed.     

The diurnal habitat used by red deer (Cervus elaphus L.) in the Haute Ardenne

We describe diurnal habitat used by red deer (Cervus elaphus L.) in two representative forests of Haute Ardenne. We captured 17 calves and 13 adults and fitted them with VHF transmitters (ear tags or collars). Each animal was radio-tracked at least once per week during the daylight hours and relocated by triangulation. To determine habitat use, we used compositional analysis. We defined use for each animal as the proportion of relocations in each vegetation association. Each relocation was weighed according to its accuracy (i.e., based on the confidence ellipse computation). We defined availability as the proportion in the area of each vegetation association within its home range (i.e., minimum convex polygon). Red deer calves preferred edges in open areas (e.g., clear-cuts) during their first 3 months of life. Adults used open coniferous [e.g., natural regeneration of spruce (Picea abies)] stands and edges between coniferous stands and other vegetation associations. Closed coniferous stands were preferred during winter and deer usually used the edges of habitat patches rather than the core areas, except in winter for coniferous stands. The deciduous stands [e.g., old growth stands of beech (Fagus sylvatica)] were usually avoided, except in winter when the edges of deciduous stands were used. The availability of coniferous stands and edges partly determined the size of the diurnal home ranges.     

Home range patterns of female red deer (Cervus elaphus L.) in the Alps

Summary From 1976 to 1978, ten female red deer in the northern parts of the Bavarian Alps (Southern West Germany) were fitted with transmitter collars. Seasonal movements, the home range patterns, and habitat utilization as a function of the habitat structure were examined. While some animals remained in the lowlands throughout the year, others move between two or even three different areas seasonally. The average size of the home range was 65 ha during winter, 167 ha in spring and autumn and 121 ha in summer. The overlap of home ranges of different individuals ranged from 18 to 100%. In habitats with a patchy vegetation structure the home ranges were used more uniformly, whereas in habitats with a distinct separation of large woods and meadows home ranges show diurnal and nocturnal activity centres respectively.     

Late‐glacial recolonization and phylogeography of European red deer (Cervus elaphus L.)

The Pleistocene was an epoch of extreme climatic and environmental changes. How individual species responded to the repeated cycles of warm and cold stages is a major topic of debate. For the European fauna and flora, an expansion–contraction model has been suggested, whereby temperate species were restricted to southern refugia during glacial times and expanded northwards during interglacials, including the present interglacial (Holocene). Here, we test this model on the red deer (Cervus elaphus) a large and highly mobile herbivore, using both modern and ancient mitochondrial DNA from the entire European range of the species over the last c. 40 000 years. Our results indicate that this species was sensitive to the effects of climate change. Prior to the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) haplogroups restricted today to South‐East Europe and Western Asia reached as far west as the UK. During the LGM, red deer was mainly restricted to southern refugia, in Iberia, the Balkans and possibly in Italy and South‐Western Asia. At the end of the LGM, red deer expanded from the Iberian refugium, to Central and Northern Europe, including the UK, Belgium, Scandinavia, Germany, Poland and Belarus. Ancient DNA data cannot rule out refugial survival of red deer in North‐West Europe through the LGM. Had such deer survived, though, they were replaced by deer migrating from Iberia at the end of the glacial. The Balkans served as a separate LGM refugium and were probably connected to Western Asia with genetic exchange between the two areas.     

The effect of cyproterone acetate on the antler cycle in red deer (Cervus elaphus L.)

The aim of the study was to test the effect of antiandrogen, cyproterone acetate (CA) on the antler cycle in the red deer (Cervus elaphus). CA was administered to three adult red deer stags (Edward, Fuks and Gacek) in weekly intervals. Edward and Fuks were given 600 mg + 600 mg of CA, whereas Gacek was given 600 mg + 300 mg. CA was injected during the hard antler phase: in mid-October (Edward), at the end of November (Fuks) and at the end of January (Gacek). CA caused the antler casting 17 to 22 days after the first injection. In all stags, the casting of antlers was followed by a period of intensive growth of new antlers. Edward was given CA at the end of October. This treatment was responsible for occurrence of the two antler cycles in the year of the experiment. When CA was administered during the middle of the hard antler phase an additional short antler cycle occurs followed by new antler growth. CA treatment in the later part of hard antler phase may cause a prolonged antler cycle.     

Prostaglandin (PGF2 alpha)-induced parturition in red deer (Cervus elaphus L.)

Prostaglandin PGF2 alpha seems to act satisfactorily as a birth inducing agent in red deer (Cervus elaphus). The progress of actual delivery and lactation in the experiments of induced parturition corresponds with observations from natural conditions. The pattern of response time to the birth inducing agent agrees with experience from domesticated species, being longest in females with the least developed fetuses. Complications such as those reported from practice with induced parturition in domestic species were not experienced in the three experiments on red deer. Applications of prostaglandin PGF2 alpha prior to approximately 18-20 days preterm probably reduce chances for the offspring to survive. This seemingly being due to ontogenetical immaturity in the fetus, and deficient hormonal development in the mother, necessary for normal lactogenesis.     

Comparing red deer (Cervus elaphus L.) and wild boar (Sus scrofa L.) dispersal patterns in southern Belgium

This study analyses the natal dispersal of red deer and wild boar in order to compare their dispersal capabilities in southern Belgium and to evaluate the relevance of management unit areas (MUA) designed for their monitoring. Dispersal was studied thanks to a mark-recovery method based on 111 red deer fawns and 1,613 piglets. The recovery rate of ear-tagged animals was 68 and 40 %, respectively. In both species, sub-adult males moved on longer distances ( $ \mathop{x}\limits^{-} $ red deer?=?4.82+/?4.17 km and $ \mathop{x}\limits^{-} $ wild boar?=?4.90+/?5.65 km) than females and juveniles $ \mathop{x}\limits^{-} $ (red deer?=?1.84+/?1.46 km and $ \mathop{x}\limits^{-} $ wild boar?=?2.49+/?3.74 km). Taking into account the age and sex categories, we found no difference between species in dispersal mean distance. But we observed higher maximal dispersal distances in wild boar compared to red deer. The natal home range mean sizes were 5.29 km² (+/?4.87) for red deer and 6.23 km² (+/?4.60) for wild boar. Red deer and wild boar showed similar dispersal rates according to age and sex category: 53 and 42 % in sub-adult males and 14 and 16 % in females and juveniles. Our results confirmed the higher proportion of philopatry in females and juveniles of both species compared to sub-adult males more likely to disperse. Wild boar of any sex or age seemed to be less sensitive than red deer to infrastructure (road, rail, river) network on which the management unit area limits are currently based.     

The state of aggregation of red deer (Cervus elaphus L.) beta-lactoglobulin preparations near neutral pH.

1. The state of aggregation of four red-deer (Cervus elaphus L.) beta-lactoglobulin preparations and a control ox beta-lactoglobulin A preparation was studied by sedimentation-equilibrium experiments at pH 6.5 and 20 degrees C. 2. Three of the deer preparations and the ox control each behaved as a monomer-dimer system, with a value of log K (where K is the association constant in litres/mol) in the range 5.4-5.5. 3. When one of these deer preparations was examined in the presence of dithiothreitol, log K appeared to decrease to 4.5.4. One deer preparation, comprising recovered material, appeared to have undergone irreversible changes and to behave like a non-equilibrating system containing monomer, dimer and trimer. 5. The sedimentation-equilibrium properties of the deer monomer was studied in 6M-guanidine hydrochloride at pH 7.0; the mol.wt. was 17600, the second virial coefficient was 3.4 x 10(-3) ml - mol - g-2, and the apparent partial specific volume 0.724 ml/g, a value indicating an appreciable decrease in volume on dissociation and denaturation.     

Home range and activity patterns of male red deer (Cervus elaphus L.) in the alps

Summary From 1978 to 1981 in the Bavarian Alps (Southern West Germany) the home range and activity patterns of nine male red deer have been studied using radio-telemetry. The home range patterns definetely change with age. Younger stags first follow the patterns of their mothers, then often emigrate from these home ranges and establish new ones elsewhere. Except for the change in range at about 2^1/2 years of age, these patterns seem to be very constant in both spatial as well as seasonal position and the size of the home ranges. Winter and rutting ranges are relatively small, averaging 113 ha and 134 ha, respectively, whereas the mean size of the home ranges used from spring to autumn amounts to some 386 ha. Just as do the home range patterns, so also do activity patterns exhibit a marked annual cycle. The daily sum total of activity varies from about 9 h in winter to some 15 h in summer. The daily distribution of activity reveals a typical bimodal 24-h rhythm which in the course of the year also shows modifications according to the seasonally varying LD-ratio. In the discussion, earlier results on female red deer are compared to those of this study. Notable differences between sexes occur in the home range patterns and the annual cycle of daily activity.     

Genetic polymorphism of plasminogen and vitamin D binding protein in red deer (Cervus elaphus L.)

Genetic polymorphism was detected in the red deer (Cervus elaphus L.), plasma proteins, plasminogen (PLG) and vitamin D binding protein (GC) using antiserum to human proteins. The affinity of the antisera to deer plasma was less than 10% that of a human standard but they bound specifically to proteins of molecular weight expected for GC and PLG. Three codominant alleles of GC and five of PLG were observed. In a set 124 farmed deer calves and their parents, six calves had genotypes which were not consistent with the expectations of inheritance. Further inconsistencies were found when variation in isocitrate dehydrogenase (IDH) and transferrin (TRF) was examined. Using genetic models which included pedigree error parameters the data were shown to be consistent with genetic inheritance of all loci in a data set containing approximately 4.8% (SE 1.4%) parent-progeny pedigree mismatches. In samples from four deer populations representative of the red deer introduced to New Zealand the GC and PLG polymorphisms provided a probability of paternity exclusion (PE) of between 0.34 and 0.54 and when IDH and TRF were also included the PE was between 0.46 and 0.66. The four populations differed significantly in allele frequency, which supports historical evidence that they originate from separate introductions of small numbers of European red deer.