昆虫的口器

概述了口器的基本结构、基本类型（九个类型），每种类型口器的特点，适于取食的食物类型．具有该种口器的昆虫种类。还简介了口器与昆虫头部形式，口器类型与化学防治的关系。     

白蜡虫若虫口器超微结构特征与生态适应性

超微结构表明,白蜡虫雌、雄若虫口器结构相同,均由外部的口针、下唇和唇基板,以及内部的口针囊和幕骨组成,且具有以下显著特点:(1)口器具口针囊,幕骨发达;(2)上唇退化,下唇短小、不分节;(3)下颚针具T型锁紧密相扣;(4)口器刚毛稀疏,感器单一.其中,口器上、下唇退化,幕骨发达,口针束伸缩可能主要受幕骨和口针囊控制,而口器感器退化则可能与其取食行为的高度特化有关.白蜡虫雌、雄虫口针长度和直径差异不显著(P＞0.05),而1龄、2龄若虫口针长度和直径差异显著(P＜0.05).1龄若虫由于口针较短,口针束较柔软,适宜穿刺较薄的叶片,故生活在叶片上,而2龄若虫由于口针较长,口针束较为坚硬,适宜穿刺比叶片厚的树皮,故返回枝条生活,且若虫从叶片转移到枝条上生活,可能是基于寻求安全栖息地和稳定食物来源.     

甜菜夜蛾幼虫触角及口器上感器形态描述(鳞翅目,夜蛾科)

甜菜夜是一种危害严重的世界性农业害虫,其幼虫识别寄主取食的机理及转主危害取决于其嗅觉感器的识别机理。本文运用扫描电镜对甜菜夜蛾幼虫头部触角及口器感器形态进行了观察,描述了感器的种类、数量和分布,并结合文献资料对其功能进行了探讨,试图解析昆虫的取食机制。     

三种夜蛾成虫口器感器的超微形态

为确定不同种类夜蛾口器及其感器在超微结构上的差异, 采用扫描电子显微镜对棉铃虫Helicoverpa armigera (Hübner)、 烟夜蛾H. assulta (Guenée)和银纹夜蛾Argyrogramma agnata (Staudinger)3种鳞翅目(Lepidoptera)夜蛾科(Noctuidae)重要农业害虫雌、 雄成虫口器感器的超微形态进行了观察和比较。结果表明： 3种夜蛾雌、 雄成虫口器感器类型均无明显差异。棉铃虫和烟夜蛾口器感器在类型和形状上十分类似, 均具有毛形、 锥形和栓锥形感器; 喙管末端的栓锥感器粗、 密, 棱纹明显。银纹夜蛾口器感器与两种铃夜蛾区别明显, 除上述3类感器外, 还具有腔锥形感器; 其喙管末端的栓锥感器细、 疏, 棱纹不明显。结果显示口器感器可用于夜蛾的分类及亲缘关系研究。     

山溪鲵头部肌肉大体解剖

通过染色、解剖、观察和绘图对山溪鲵头部肌肉做了详细描述.山溪鲵头部肌肉包括头侧肌肉、头腹肌肉、眼部肌肉及喉部肌肉.其肌肉组成与有尾类头部肌肉的一般构成基本一致.从第二鳃弓游离端内侧发出一细条状肌纤维,附着在三角骨外侧末端,此种情况在以前其他有尾类肌肉系统研究中未见报道.     

B型烟粉虱为害烟草后对斜纹夜蛾成虫产卵和幼虫取食行为的影响

为明确外来入侵害虫B型烟粉虱取食诱导的烟草防御反应对斜纹夜蛾的影响,探讨其与斜纹夜蛾的种间竞争机制,在室内条件下研究了B型烟粉虱取食后的烟草对斜纹夜蛾成虫产卵选择、幼虫取食选择、拒食作用和其他取食行为指标的影响.结果表明:斜纹夜蛾成虫在B型烟粉虱为害后的植株上的落卵量较对照植株降低了40.9%.B型烟粉虱为害的虫体叶对斜纹夜蛾初孵化幼虫具有明显的驱避作用,而中间叶和系统白脉叶有一定的吸引作用,心叶不影响幼虫对寄主的选择性.B型烟粉虱为害叶片对斜纹夜蛾幼虫具有显著的拒食作用,虫体叶拒食作用明显大于系统白脉叶片.与对照相比,B型烟粉虱为害的虫体叶和系统白脉叶降低了斜纹夜蛾幼虫单位时间取食次数或取食比例,虫体叶还显著延长了幼虫开始取食时间,总取食面积显著减少.表明B型烟粉虱为害烟草对斜纹夜蛾成虫产卵和幼虫取食行为均产生不利影响.研究结果对了解烟田害虫种群变动规律和指导害虫治理具有较大意义.     

草地贪夜蛾幼虫头部感受器种类、分布和数量特征

为了解草地贪夜蛾Spodoptera frugiperda(Smith)幼虫头部感受器的种类、形态、分布和数量,利用FlexSEM-1000型扫描电镜观察了草地贪夜蛾5龄幼虫头部、触角和口器,明确了头部超微形态特征及感受器种类、分布及数量。该虫5龄幼虫头部共有4种类型感受器,分别为毛形感受器(ST)、刺形感受器(SC)、锥形感受器(SB)和栓锥形感受器(SS),其中触角上着生2个锥形感受器、1个刺形感受器、1个毛形感受器和1个栓锥形感受器;左上颚和右上颚各分布有1对刺形感受器;下颚及下颚须上共分布有2个毛形感受器、2个刺形感受器和2个栓锥形感受器;下唇须上有2个刺形感受器;在吐丝器前方两侧有1对刺形感受器。     

利用计算机视觉技术量化解析食物颜色与斜纹夜蛾幼虫体色变化的关系

【目的】为了明确食物颜色对不同日龄昆虫体色的影响,并推广利用计算机视觉研究昆虫体色的技术。【方法】本研究以斜纹夜蛾Prodenia litura幼虫为实验材料,采用计算机定量分析的方法,对取食不同颜色型人工饲料的斜纹夜蛾幼虫头部、胸部斑纹、胸腹部和背中线的红色(R)、绿色(G)、蓝色(B)和明度(L)值进行了定量化分析。【结果】结果表明:幼虫的斑纹、胸腹部背面及侧面主色和背中线的R,G,B和L值随日龄增加而下降;头部R,G,B和L值在1-3日龄增加,后随日龄的增加而下降。幼虫体色变化也受食物颜色的影响,以对1-7日龄的影响为最大;红色型食物r∶g∶b=(128~251)∶(3~129)∶(6~96)对幼虫各部位体色的影响大于黄色、绿色和紫色的食物;幼虫取食不同颜色型食物后,各部位的变异系数大小依次为:斑纹胸腹部头部背中线。最后,建立了幼虫体色与食物色彩r,g,b值及日龄的回归方程。【结论】斜纹夜蛾幼虫体色受到食物颜色的影响,且在低龄时更为显著。     

6种植物次生物质对斜纹夜蛾解毒酶活性的影响

草食性昆虫取食植物时遇到宿主植物中大量次生物质的化学防御,研究昆虫适应植物毒素的反防御策略具有重要的科学意义。分别添加0.01%肉桂酸、0.01%水杨酸、0.01%花椒毒素、0.02%槲皮素、0.05%黄酮和0.1%香豆素等6种植物次生物质的人工饲料饲养斜纹夜蛾(Spodoptera litura)五龄幼虫48 h后,测定斜纹夜蛾幼虫中肠和脂肪体中谷胱甘肽S-转移酶(GSTs)、羧酸酯酶(CarE)、P450的酶含量及头部乙酰胆碱酯酶(AChE)的活性,利用半定量RT-PCR检测中肠和脂肪体中CYP4M14和CYP4S9的基因表达水平。结果表明:取食肉桂酸和香豆素后,斜纹夜蛾中肠中CarE的酶活性分别提高了1.67和1.37倍,取食6种次生物质均能显著提高斜纹夜蛾脂肪体中GSTs酶活性。取食肉桂酸和香豆素48 h后,脂肪体中P450酶含量比对照增加2.93和14.50倍。取食肉桂酸、花椒毒素、槲皮素和香豆素后,斜纹夜蛾头部AchE酶活性与对照相比提高了1.53、1.80、2.36和1.56倍。6种次生物质均可诱导脂肪体中CYP4M14基因表达,槲皮素、肉桂酸和香豆素强烈诱导CYP4S9在脂肪体中表达。表明,斜纹夜蛾具有利用植物次生物质诱导其解毒酶的能力,进而提高其对毒素的抗性。     

寄主植物对斜纹夜蛾酯酶和乙酰胆碱酯酶活性的影响

利用生物测定与生物化学的方法,就取食不同寄主植物的2个斜纹夜蛾[Spodoptera litura(Fab.)]品系对丙溴磷和灭多威的敏感性及其体内的酯酶与乙酰胆碱酯酶的活性变化进行了研究。结果表明,取食不同寄主植物的斜纹夜蛾对丙溴磷和灭多威的敏感性不同。在敏感品系中,取食不同食料的斜纹夜蛾后代对灭多威的敏感性顺序为:烟草<棉花<大豆<人工饲料;对丙溴磷而言,敏感性顺序则为:棉花<烟草<大豆<人工饲料。而在田间抗性品系中,对丙溴磷的敏感性顺序为:棉花<烟草<人工饲料<大豆;对灭多威的敏感性顺序为:棉花<烟草<大豆<人工饲料。此外,在田间抗性和敏感品系中,取食不同食料的斜纹夜蛾体内的酯酶活性之间均存在显著差异,对其乙酰胆碱酯酶的活性也有程度不同的诱导效应,但并不会引起乙酰胆碱酯酶的质变。     

A comparative survey of proboscis morphology and associated structures in fruit-piercing, tear-feeding, and blood-feeding moths in Calpinae (Lepidoptera: Erebidae)

Functional feeding categories for adult species of Calpinae are described. Structures associated with the proboscis were examined using exemplar species in fruit-piercing, blood-feeding, and tear-feeding species using both light microscopy and SEM methods. At least three genera currently placed in Calpini, and several others in related groups lack specialized piercing structures. The proboscis of the tear-feeding species, Hemiceratoides hieroglyphica, is equipped with specialized cuticular hooks not yet observed in other tear-feeding species. Tearing hooks moveable by blood pressure are restricted to Calpini species, and little additional variation within this taxon exists, suggesting proboscis morphology may not be strongly correlated with feeding behavior (e.g., fruit piercing vs. blood feeding). A glossary of terms and character codings for proboscis structures is provided, and morphologies for all included calpine taxa are described. We discuss the taxonomic significance of proboscis morphology in Calpinae and the evolutionary implications of their associated feeding behaviors. This survey indicates morphology provides powerful prediction, but not proof of lepidopteran adult food habits.     

The function and phylogenetic implications of the tentorium in adult Neuroptera (Insecta)

Despite several recent analyses on the phylogeny of Neuroptera some questions still remain to be answered. In the present analysis we address these questions by exploring a hitherto unexplored character complex: the tentorium, the internal cuticular support structure of the insect head. We described in detail the tentoria of representatives of all extant neuropteran families and the muscles originating on the tentorium using 3D microCT images and analyzed differences in combination with a large published matrix based on larval characters. We find that the tentorium and associated musculature are a source of phylogenetically informative characters. The addition of the tentorial characters to the larval matrix causes a basad shift of the Sisyridae and clearly supports a clade of all Neuroptera except Sisyridae and Nevrorthidae. A sister group relationship of Coniopterygidae and the dilarid clade is further corroborated. A general trend toward a reduction of the dorsal tentorial arms and the development of laminatentoria is observed. In addition to the phylogenetic analysis, a correlation among the feeding habits, the development of the maxillary muscles, and the laminatentoria is demonstrated.     

Malagasy birds as hosts for eye-frequenting moths

While tear-feeding in moths on mammals is widespread, there have been no reports of this behaviour in Madagascar and none on birds. We report that a moth, Hemiceratoides hieroglyphica belonging to the Calpini, a generally fruit-feeding or blood-feeding lineage of noctuids, attacks sleeping birds in Madagascar. This moth is able to intrude its sharply tipped proboscis into a closed bird's eye. The proboscis is characterized by a specific armoury of hooks, barbs and spines similar to that in piercing calpines but dissimilar to that in other tear-feeding moths. This is the first report of exploitation of tears by Lepidoptera from the closed eyes of sleeping birds.     

The ecological scenario of Lepidopteran evolution

Soil detritophagy has been hypothesized to be the ancestral feeding type of the Lepidoptera as evidenced by the larval feeding habits of Zeugloptera. The ancestral feeding type, as well as mycetophagy and other closely related types of feeding, is still retained in Hepialomorpha, many Tineiformes, and some Cossiformes. Two main trends in the evolution of larval feeding are recognizable. Larvae of non-ditrysian moths and primitive Ditrysia show the evolutionary trend from detritophagy and soil phytophagy to wood-eating and feeding on inner leaf tissues, and further to leaf-mining. Evolutionary transition to leaf-mining occurred independently in the main phylogenetic lineages, viz Aglossata, Heterobathmiina, Eriocraniomorpha, Adelomorpha, Nepticulomorpha, and Tineiformes + Yponomeutiformes + Gelechiiformes. Evolutionary transition to open-living phytophagous larvae occurred within Cossiformes. Both evolutionary trends are in accordance with the principle of enhancing the role of larval feeding correlated with a tendency to weakening of adult feeding (Mazokhin-Porshnyakov, 1954). Under these conditions, simple proboscis seems to have evolved as an adaptation to the exploitation of water and feeding on decaying organic matter. Subsequent coevolution of Lepidoptera and Angiospermae results in evolving of much more complex proboscis and high-energetic nectar feeding. The input of additional energy seems to be correlated with the origin of parental care in the order. Flower visiting has arisen at the evolutionary level of leaf-mining larvae (Adelomorpha), but the origin of true anthophily seems to be correlated with the evolutionary transition to open-living larvae (Apoditrysia). This correlation is evidenced by the fact that the most substantial functional modification of proboscis, namely the origin of new extensors CMx 5 is shared by all Apoditrysia.     

饥饿和交配对小地老虎飞行肌发育的影响

小地老虎Agrotis ypsilon(Rottemburg)成虫飞行肌的发育常受一些因素影响而发生变化,为探讨饥饿和交配行为对飞行肌发育的影响,通过电子显微镜对雌虫飞行肌(背纵肌)的肌原纤维、线粒体结构进行观察,结果显示:4日龄饥饿雌虫,肌原纤维直径、肌节长度、肌原纤维体积均显著(P<0.05)小于取食的。7日龄饥饿雌虫肌原纤维直径、肌节长度、肌原纤维体积分数较4日龄的差异均不显著(P≥0.05),而7日龄饥饿的肌原纤维直径显著(P<0.05)大于7日龄取食的;羽化10 d后,饥饿雌虫肌节长度显著(P<0.05)大于取食雌虫的,而肌纤维体积分数和线粒体体积分数均却小于后者。7、10、13日龄交配雌虫肌原纤维横切直径分别显著(P<0.05)小于同日龄非交配的;7、10、13日龄交配雌虫肌原纤维体积分数显著(P<0.05)小于非交配的,线粒体体积分数虽然无差异(P≥0.05),但是交配雌虫的早在4日龄便已明显(P<0.05)减小。上述结果表明:正常取食的小地老虎飞行肌4日龄后会发生降解现象;饥饿抑制飞行肌前期发育和中期的降解,而促进成虫末期肌原纤维的分解;交配能促进飞行肌的降解。     

Form,function and evolution of the mouthparts of blood-feeding Arthropoda

This review compares the mouthparts and their modes of operation in blood-feeding Arthropoda which have medical relevance to humans. All possess piercing blood-sucking proboscides which exhibit thin stylet-shaped structures to puncture the host's skin. The tips of the piercing structures are serrated to provide anchorage. Usually, the piercing organs are enveloped by a soft sheath-like part which is not inserted. The piercing process includes either back and forth movements of the piercing structures, or sideways cutting motions, or the apex of the proboscis bears teeth-like structures which execute drilling movements. Most piercing-proboscides have a food-canal which is separate from a salivary canal. The food-canal is functionally connected to a suction pump in the head that transports blood into the alimentary tract. The salivary canal conducts saliva to the tip of the proboscis, from where it is discharged into the host. Piercing blood-sucking proboscides evolved either from (1) generalized biting-chewing mouthparts, (2) from piercing mouthparts of predators, or plant sap or seed feeders, (3) from lapping or sponging mouthparts. Representatives of one taxon of Acari liquefy skin tissue by enzymatic action. During feeding, many blood-feeding arthropods inadvertently transmit pathogens, which mostly are transported through the discharged saliva into the host.     

Paralineopsis taki gen. et sp. nov., a littoral heteronemertean from Japan,provided with special proboscideal,circulatory and sensory organs of significance to nemertean systematics

Some morphological features with major systematic significance are recorded in the heteronemertean Paralineopsis taki gen. et sp. nov. from Onomichi, Japan as follows: horizontal band of specialized epithelium extends from near apex to the opening of the cerebral organ canal on either side of the head; precerebral region filled with gelatinous (hyaline) connective tissue in which longitudinal muscles are absent; body wall muscles do not accompany rhynchodaeal invagination; rhynchodaeum initially only epidermal; inner longitudinal muscles of ventral wall of cephalic blood lacuna become intimately associated with rhynchodaeum forming a dorsal saddle over it; cerebral organs do not penetrate inner longitudinal muscles, and do not contact blood vascular system; proboscideal diaphragm post-cerebral; outer longitudinal muscles absent throughout body; longitudinal muscles of proboscis derived from inner longitudinal musculature. The systematic relationship of P. taki and Paralineus elisabethae (Schütz, 1911) from Villefranche, France is discussed.     

Comparative buccal anatomy in Helisoma (mollusca,pulmonata, basommatophora)

Dissections were performed to document buccal anatomy in three species of the pulmonate genus Helisoma Swainson, 1840. The 28 muscles which are responsible for radular feeding in these animals are organized in three concentric and integrated envelopes. The deepest of these includes muscles which manipulate the radula about the odontophoral cartilage. Elements of the middle envelope direct movements of the cartilage within the buccal cavity, and muscles of the outer envelope control movements of the buccal mass within the cephalic haemocoel. Motion analysis by videomicrography showed that muscles of the middle and outer envelopes contribute to the action of radular feeding by acting as antagonists to other muscles and to hydrostatic elements of the buccal apparatus. Observations of radular dentition showed that although each of the three species examined has a unique radula, especially with regard to the specific details of tooth shape, all resemble a radula characteristic of the Planorbidae with regard to other, more general, aspects of ribbon architecture.     

Presence and distribution of sensory structures on the mouthparts of self-medicating moths

Unique structures often accompany unusual feeding behaviors in erebid moths. We test whether self-medicating (e.g., pharmacophagous) adult tiger moths have specialized structures on their mouthparts. We examined mouthparts of pharmacophagous and non-pharmacophagous adults using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Self-medicating adults had significantly higher numbers of chemosensory structures when compared with non-self-medicating adults. Putative olfactory sensilla are reported on the proboscis of Nyctemera coleta and pollen grains were found adhered to the proboscis of Nyctemera secundiana. Sensilla on the observed tiger moth proboscides may play a role in the recognition of pyrrolizidine alkaloid plants by pharmacophagous adults.     

Presence and distribution of sensory structures on the mouthparts of self-medicating moths

Unique structures often accompany unusual feeding behaviors in erebid moths. We test whether self-medicating (e.g., pharmacophagous) adult tiger moths have specialized structures on their mouthparts. We examined mouthparts of pharmacophagous and non-pharmacophagous adults using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Self-medicating adults had significantly higher numbers of chemosensory structures when compared with non-self-medicating adults. Putative olfactory sensilla are reported on the proboscis of Nyctemera coleta and pollen grains were found adhered to the proboscis of Nyctemera secundiana. Sensilla on the observed tiger moth proboscides may play a role in the recognition of pyrrolizidine alkaloid plants by pharmacophagous adults.