Public Access for Pheasant Hunters: Understanding an Emerging Need

Ring-necked pheasant (Phasianus colchicus; i.e., pheasant) hunting participation is declining across North America, reflecting a larger downward trend in American hunting participation and threatening benefits to grassland conservation and rural economies. To stabilize and expand the pheasant hunting population, we must first identify factors that influence pheasant hunter participation. We used an extensive in-person hunter survey to test the hypothesis that hunter demographics interact with social-ecological traits of hunting locations to affect hunter decisions, outcomes, and perceptions. We built a series of Bayesian mixed effects models to parse variation in demographics, perceptions, and hunt outcomes of pheasant hunters interviewed at public access hunting sites across 3 regions in Nebraska, USA, that varied in pheasant abundance and proximity to urban population centers. Among pheasant hunters in Nebraska, access to private lands was negatively related to the human population density of a pheasant hunter's home ZIP code and the distance a hunter had traveled to reach a hunting location. Pheasant hunters interviewed closer to metropolitan areas tended to be more urban and travel shorter distances, and their parties were more likely to include youth but less likely to include dogs. Hunter satisfaction was positively associated with seeing and harvesting pheasants and hunting with youth. Whereas youth participation and the number of pheasants seen varied by study region, hunter satisfaction did not differ across regions, suggesting that hunters may calibrate their expectations and build their parties based on where they plan to hunt. The variation in hunter demographics across hunting locations and disconnects between social and ecological correlates of hunter satisfaction suggests that diverse pheasant hunting constituencies will be best served by diverse pheasant hunting opportunities. © 2019 The Wildlife Society.     

Influence of habitat features and hunter behavior on white-tailed deer harvest

Sport hunting may help in controlling cervid populations over large areas. As with natural predators, several environmental factors can influence sport harvest. A better understanding of the environmental variables that limit the efficiency of sport hunting could provide guidelines for more efficient wildlife management using hunting. We studied white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) hunting on a high deer density island where hunting was the sole form of predation. Our objective was to study the behavior of sport hunters and determine the habitat characteristics (e.g., abundance of deer forage, visibility of the deer from the hunter's point of view, and accessibility of the territory to hunters) that are associated with a successful harvest. We collected movements and harvest site location data from 477 hunters equipped with handheld Global Positioning System (GPS) units. Harvest sites were visited and characterized, along with a paired random site, to determine the environmental conditions associated with a successful hunt. We also developed a model to predict the daily number of deer seen by hunters considering weather conditions, hunter characteristics (e.g., age, experience), and date of hunting. We used the mean number of deer seen per hunter per day as a relative index of local density in each hunted territory. At both the site and landscape scales, the combination of visibility and access had a positive effect on the distribution of harvested deer. Habitat types with less visual obstruction from vegetation enabled hunters to see more deer in a given day. At the site scale, harvested deer were located in areas with a lower density of access routes compared to areas where hunters travelled throughout the day. Using an innovative approach of studying hunter behavior with GPS technology, digital maps, and questionnaires, we highlighted the factors associated with hunter success. Our study suggests that habitat characteristics could be modified to increase harvest by improving accessibility and visibility near roads. Creating openings in mature and regenerating forest near access roads could make sport hunting a more efficient management tool, but the potential impact of increased forage availability in forest openings should not be overlooked. © 2012 The Wildlife Society.     

Use of Bait to Increase Archery Deer Harvest in an Urban–Suburban Landscape

Abstract: Hunting is the primary tool for managing white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) populations. Effectiveness of hunting in suburban areas may be reduced due to limited hunter access to small properties, firearms-discharge laws, and public safety concerns. In Connecticut, USA, hunting over bait on private land was recently legalized to increase harvest opportunities. Our objective was to assess bow-hunter willingness to use bait and effects of bait type, hunter disturbance, time spent hunting, and property size on deer-harvest potential in a suburban landscape. We mailed a prebaiting survey in February 2002 and a postbaiting survey in February 2004 to the same group of hunters. Hunters using bait were more successful and harvested more deer than hunters using no bait. Hunters using bait on small properties observed similar numbers of deer within shooting range as hunters using bait on larger properties. Hunters using bait met their venison needs, whereas hunters using no bait did not meet their needs. Resource managers should implement strategies that increase hunter success when developing urban deer-management programs for communities.     

Hunters and hunting patterns in part of the Kaimanawa Recreational Hunting Area

Abstract

A postal survey of 156 hunters who used the three southeastern-most hunting blocks in the Kaimanawa Recreational Hunting Area (RHA) in 1986 and 1987 achieved a 74% response rate. Comparison of age distributions from this and earlier hunter surveys confirmed an apparent decline in recruitment of young hunters entering the sport during the 1980s. Most hunters had considerable experience (>10 years) and were motivated not only by hunting success but also by the aesthetic value of the outdoor experience. The prime motivation for hunting in the Kaimanawa RHA was the presence of sika deer, and more than two-thirds of the hunters came from outside the Tongariro/Taupo Conservancy. Hunting pressure over current sika deer range in the central North Island may decline if this species continues to disperse naturally or through illegal liberations to other areas. Most (80%) hunters felt that deer densities were acceptable and were satisfied with the present unrestricted hunting system. Fewer than half (41%) the respondents were in favour of active management in the Kaimanawa RHA. Suggestions for active management focused on increasing hunter safety and increasing hunting success rates. Deer densities, as indicated by faecal pellet counts, were inversely related to hunting pressure. Variation in hunting pressure between areas was caused mainly by differences in accessibility. This indicates some potential for manipulation of deer density through options such as increasing access to remote areas or restrictions on hunting pressure.     

Big-game,small-game,and gamebird hunting in New Zealand: Hunting effort,harvest, and expenditure in 1988

Abstract

A postal survey of 8639 licensed firearm owners in 1989 indicated that an estimated 117 200 ± 6300 New Zealanders (3.5% of the total population) did some hunting in 1988. An estimated 33 100 former hunters did not hunt in 1988 but thought it likely that they would hunt again in future. The survey provided useful estimates of 1988 national totals for hunting effort (4.4 million hunter days), gross expenditure ($NZ100 million), and harvest (6.5 million animals).

Small-game hunting dominated, involving 81% of hunters, 59% of total hunting effort, and 86% of total numerical harvest: rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) and possums (Trichosurus vulpecula) each comprised 40% of the national bag. Gamebird hunting involved 48% of hunters, 19% of effort, and 11% of total harvest: ducks comprised 73% of the gamebird harvest. Although big-game hunting attracted the fewest hunters (42%) it ranked second for hunting effort (21%). Big game formed 3% of the total numerical harvest: pigs (Sus scrofa), goats (Capra hircus), and red deer (Cervus elaphus scoticus) were the most commonly taken. Big-game were estimated to comprise 49% of total harvest biomass, followed by small-game (47%), and gamebirds (4%). Most deer (nearly 60%) were taken for recreation, with helicopter-based hunting accounting for only one-third the total deer harvest.

A quarter of those people hunting in 1988 hunted on five or fewer days that year, and a relatively small group of mainly professional hunters accounted for a disproportionately large share of the overall harvest Hunters reported spending an average of $851 each on hunting in 1988. Expenditure on big-game comprised 44% of the total, small-game 23%, and gamebirds 33%. Expenditure per animal harvested or per day hunted was greater for big-game animals (other than goats) than for gamebirds, which were more expensive to hunt than small-game. Total hunting effort was inversely related to the average expenditure per animal harvested, regardless of the type of game.     

Harvest regulations and artificial selection on horn size in male bighorn sheep

Wild sheep in North America are highly prized by hunters and most harvest regulations restrict legal harvest to males with a specified minimum horn curl. Because reproductive success is skewed toward larger males that are socially dominant, these regulations may select against high-quality, fast-growing males. To evaluate potential selective effects of alternative management strategies, we analyzed horn increment measures of males harvested over 28 yr (1975–2003) in 2 bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis) ecotypes in British Columbia, Canada. Using mixed-effect models we examined variation in hunter selection for horn size, early horn growth, and male age under different harvest regulations (Full Curl, Three Quarter Curl, Any Ram). Under all regulations, males with the greatest early horn growth were harvested at the youngest ages, before the age at which large horns influence reproductive success. Early growth decreased with harvest age and until ≥7 yr of age it was greatest in males harvested under Full Curl regulation. Permit type (General vs. Limited Entry Hunt) and hunter origin (British Columbia Resident vs. Non-Resident) had little effect on horn size of harvested males. Full Curl regulations increased the average age of harvested males by <1 yr relative to Three-Quarter Curl regulations. Age-specific horn measures in the California ecotype harvested under Three-Quarter Curl regulations declined over time but we observed no temporal declines in the Rocky Mountain ecotype, primarily harvested under Full Curl regulations. Management strategies that protect some males with greater early horn growth or provide harvest refuges to maintain genetic diversity are likely to reduce potential for negative effects of artificial selection. © 2010 The Wildlife Society     

Hunting Patterns,Ban on Baiting,and Harvest Demographics of Brown Bears in Sweden

Abstract We analyzed harvest data to describe hunting patterns and harvest demography of brown bears (Ursus arctos) killed in 3 geographic regions in Sweden during 1981–2004. In addition, we investigated the effects of a ban on baiting, instituted in 2001, and 2 major changes in the quota system: a switch to sex-specific quotas in 1992 and a return to total quotas in 1999. Brown bears (n=887) were harvested specifically by bear hunters and incidentally by moose (Alces alces) hunters. Both hunter categories harvested bears 1) using dogs (37%), 2) by still hunting (30%), 3) with the use of bait (18%), and 4) by stalking (16%). The proportion of bears killed with different harvest methods varied among regions and between bear- and moose-oriented hunters. We found differences between male (52%) and female bears (48%) with respect to the variables that explained age. Moose-oriented hunters using still hunting harvested the youngest male bears. Bears harvested during the first management period (1981–1991) were older and had greater odds of being male than during the subsequent period. It appears that hunters harvesting bears in Sweden are less selective than their North American counterparts, possibly due to differences in the hunting system. When comparing the 4 years immediately prior to the ban on baiting with the 4 years following the ban, we found no differences in average age of harvested bears, sex ratio, or proportion of bears killed with stalking, still hunting, and hunting with dogs, suggesting that the ban on baiting in Sweden had no immediate effect on patterns of brown bear harvest demography and remaining hunting methods. As the demographic and evolutionary side effects of selective harvesting receive growing attention, wildlife managers should be aware that differences in harvest systems between jurisdictions may cause qualitative and quantitative differences in harvest biases. (JOURNAL OF WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT 72(1):79–88; 2008)     

Spatial and temporal variation in harvest probabilities for American black duck

Assessing spatial variation in waterfowl harvest probabilities from banding data is challenging because reporting and recovery probabilities have distinct spatial patterns that covary temporally with harvesting regulations, hunter effort, and reporting methods. We analyzed direct band recovery data from American black ducks banded on the Canadian breeding grounds from 1970 through 2010. Data were registered to a 1‐degree grid and analyzed using hierarchical logistic regression models with spatially correlated errors to estimate the annual probabilities of band recovery and the proportion of individuals recovered in Canada. Probability of harvest was estimated from these values, in combination with independent estimates of reporting probabilities in Canada and the USA. Model covariates included estimates of hunting effort and factors for harvest regulation and band reporting methods. Both the band recovery processes and the proportion of individuals recovered in Canada had significant spatial structure. Recovery probabilities were highest in southern Ontario, along the Saint Lawrence River in Quebec, and in Nova Scotia. Black ducks breeding in Nova Scotia and southern Quebec were harvested predominantly in Canada. Recovery probabilities for juveniles were correlated with hunter effort, while the adult recoveries were weakly correlated with the implementation of stricter harvest regulations in the early 1980s. Mean harvest probability decreased in the northern portion of the survey area but remained stable or even increased in the south. Harvest probabilities for juveniles in 2010 exceeded 20% in southern Quebec and the Atlantic provinces. Our results demonstrate fine‐scale variation in harvest probabilities for black duck on the Canadian breeding ground. In particular, harvest probabilities should be closely monitored along the Saint Lawrence River system and in the Atlantic provinces to avoid overexploitation.     

Spinning-wing decoy use and reported duck harvest in Illinois: Implications for adaptive harvest management

Use of battery-powered spinning-wing decoys (SWDs) by duck hunters has generated questions as to the effect these decoys may have on duck harvests. I used data from the annual Illinois Waterfowl Hunter Survey for duck hunting seasons 1999 through 2003 to compare mallard (Anas platyrhynchos) and total duck harvest, reported days afield, and duck crippling rates between hunters using and not using SWDs. For the each of the 5 years reported, mean mallard harvest was greater among hunters using SWDs than among hunters not using the decoys and effect size was substantial (1999: F = 355.01, P < 0.001; 2000: F = 567.92, P < 0.001; 2001: F = 333.25, P < 0.001; 2002: F = 321.58, P < 0.001; 2003: F = 299.00, P < 0.001). Mean reported total ducks harvested was greater for decoy users than non-users, and I found effect sizes to be substantial for all years (1999: F = 301.80, P < 0.001; 2000: F = 607.76, P < 0.001; 2001: F = 369.49, P < 0.001; 2002: F = 321.59, P < 0.001; 2003: F = 335.82, P < 0.001). Decoy users reported hunting more days than non-users (1999: F = 71.00, P < 0.001; 2000: F = 716.50, P < 0.001; 2001: F = 486.75, P < 0.001; 2002: F = 410.72, P < 0.001; 2003: F = 466.09, P < 0.001). I observed substantial effect size for days hunted by decoy use for each year except for 1999–2000, for which effect size was typical. Hunters using SWDs reported greater crippled ducks than for hunters not using the decoys, with typical effect sizes observed for each year I examined (1999: F = 168.42, P < 0.001; 2000: F = 361.34, P < 0.001; 2001: F = 163.05, P < 0.001; 2002: F = 153.29, P < 0.001; 2003: F = 169.18, P < 0.001). I did not observe significant relationships between years of hunting experience and decoy use (R² range = 0.051–0.071). My findings support claims that SWDs lead to increased duck harvests. Recent actions by some state wildlife management agencies have resulted in a mixed approach toward regulating use of SWDs, ranging from prohibiting their use to removing all restrictions. This study seeks to provide managers with greater understanding of potential impacts of SWD use on waterfowl harvests. © 2011 The Wildlife Society.     

Attitudes of Missouri Small Game Hunters Toward Nontoxic-Shot Regulations

ABSTRACT Wildlife managers are becoming more concerned about the exposure of birds, in addition to waterfowl, to spent lead shot. Knowledge of hunter attitudes and their acceptance of nontoxic-shot regulations will be important in establishing new regulations. Our objective was to assess the attitudes of small game hunters in Missouri, USA, toward a nontoxic-shot regulation for small game hunting, specifically for mourning doves (Zenaida macroura). Most hunters (71.7–84.8%) opposed additional nontoxic-shot regulations. Hunters from rural areas, hunters with a rural background, hunters who hunt doves, hunters who currently hunt waterfowl, hunters who primarily use private lands, and current upland game hunters were more likely to oppose new regulations. For mourning dove hunting, most small game hunters (81.1%) opposed further restrictions; however, many non-dove hunters (57.1%) expressed no opinion. Because our results demonstrate that most small game hunters and dove hunters in Missouri are decidedly against further nontoxic-shot regulations, any informational and educational programs developed to accompany future policy changes must address their concerns.     

Hierarchical Bayesian integrated model for estimating migratory bird harvest in Canada

The Canadian Wildlife Service (CWS) requires reliable estimates of the harvest of migratory game birds, including waterfowl, to effectively manage populations of these hunted species. The National Harvest Survey is an annual survey of hunters who purchase Canada's mandatory migratory game bird hunting permit, integrating information from a survey of hunting activity with information from a separate survey of species composition in the harvest. We used these survey data to estimate the number of birds harvested for each species and hunting activity metrics (e.g., number of active hunters, days spent hunting). The analytical methods used to generate these estimates have not changed since the survey was first designed in the early 1970s. We describe a new hierarchical Bayesian integrated model, which replaces the series of ratio estimators that comprised the old model. We are using this new model to generate estimates for migratory bird harvests as of the 2019–2020 hunting season, and to generate updated estimates for all earlier years. The hierarchical Bayesian model uses over-dispersed Poisson distributions to model mean hunter activity and harvest (zero-inflated Poisson and zero-truncated Poisson, respectively). It also includes multinomial distributions to model some key components (e.g., variation in harvest across periods of the hunting season, the species composition of the harvest within each of those periods, the age and sex composition in the harvests of a given species). We estimated the parameters of the Poisson and the multinomial distributions for each year as random effects using first-difference time-series. This time-series component allows the model to share information across years and reduces the sensitivity of the estimates to annual sampling noise. The new model estimates are generally very similar to those from the old model, particularly for the species that occur most commonly in the harvest, so the results do not suggest any major changes to harvest management decisions and regulations. Estimates for all species from the new model are more precise and less susceptible to annual sampling error, particularly for species that occur less commonly in the harvest (e.g., sea ducks, other species of conservation concern). This new model, with its hierarchical Bayesian framework, will also facilitate future improvements and elaborations, allowing the incorporation of prior information from the rich literature and knowledge in game bird management and biology.     

The hierarchy of virtue: mutualism, altruism and signaling in Martu women's cooperative hunting

Cooperative hunting is often assumed to be mutualistic, maintained through returns to scale, where, by working together, foragers can gain higher per capita return rates or harvest sizes than they can by hunting alone. We test this hypothesis among Martu hunters and find that cooperation only provides increased returns to poorer hunters while disadvantaging better hunters. Even so, better hunters still cooperate as frequently as poorer hunters. We ask whether better hunters are advantaged in secondary sharing distributions or whether they bias their partner choice to kin or household members. We find that better hunters are not more likely to pair up with kin and they do not gain consumption benefits from acquiring more. They share a greater proportion of their harvest than poorer hunters: no matter how much one produces — better hunter, worse hunter, cooperator, solitary hunter — all eat the same amount in the end. Such a result suggests the hypothesis that cooperation might be a costly signal of commitment to the public interest on the part of better hunters, which generates trust among camp members and facilitates strong social networks, particularly among women, who cooperate more than men. While some foragers may benefit through cooperation from returns to scale or risk reduction, others may benefit more through signaling commitment and generating trust.     

The economic value of publicly accessible deer hunting land

Access to lands for hunting is widely recognized as critical to sustaining and developing participation in hunting. Deer hunters comprise a substantial portion of recreational hunters in the United States, and numerous stakeholders benefit from the deer management services provided by hunters on public lands. We estimated the economic value of publicly accessible deer hunting land in Michigan using economic models of hunting destinations for hunters in the archery season and for hunters in the firearm season. We found that the amounts of state-owned hunting land, federally owned hunting land, and publicly accessible, privately owned Commercial Forest Act land are significant (P < 0.001) and positive determinants of hunting destinations. The annual economic value of Michigan's publicly accessible hunting land to archery and firearm deer hunters, beyond hunter expenditures, was estimated to be over $80 million. Access to state-owned land accounted for approximately $50 million in annual economic value to Michigan deer hunters. The average per-acre value of publicly accessible hunting land is greatest in the Southern Lower Peninsula of Michigan, where public access is scarce and the majority of hunters reside. Understanding the economic values hunters derive from publicly accessible hunting lands will enable managers and policy makers to make better decisions when considering policy options that involve reducing or increasing public access. © 2011 The Wildlife Society.     

Contribution of dogs to white-tailed deer hunting success

Dogs (Canis familiaris) are used in hunting white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) in 10 North American jurisdictions. Although the practice is longstanding and controversial, the effects of dogs on the outcome of the hunt have rarely been studied. We evaluated the influence of dogs on recreational hunting of white-tailed deer based on long-term data from southeastern Ontario, Canada. Over 25 years, annual surveys of hunters were used to collect data on hunting effort and deer harvest from approximately 85 camps, roughly half of which had dogs. We investigated the relationship between harvest and 3 treatments (i.e., 0 dogs, 1 dog, and ≥2 dogs in camp), interactions with weather and deer density, and effects of neighboring camps. Dogs enhanced hunter success. We found no difference in deer encounter rates but, per unit effort, camps with ≥2 dogs harvested 0.013 (26%) more deer per hunter-day, missed 0.010 (23%) more deer per hunter-day, and wounded 0.002 (40%) more deer per hunter-day than camps without dogs. Conversely, camps without dogs saw, without shooting at, 0.033 (23%) more deer per hunter-day than camps with ≥2 dogs. These results are consistent with the idea that hunters with dogs are less selective. Hunters with dogs harvested more fawns per unit effort, but we found no difference in the harvest rate of older female deer. More precipitation, greater wind speed, lower temperatures and greater deer density improved harvest success but had no differential effect among dog treatments. Hunter success at camps with ≥2 dogs was less when neighboring camps also had ≥2 dogs. Because antlerless deer quotas are the principal means to control populations, increasing use of hunting dogs is unlikely to have substantial effects in managing overabundant deer. © 2012 The Wildlife Society.     

Mallard Harvest Distributions in the Mississippi and Central Flyways

Abstract: The mallard (Anas platyrhynchos) is the most harvested duck in North America. A topic of debate among hunters, especially those in Arkansas, USA, is whether wintering distributions of mallards have changed in recent years. We examined distributions of mallards in the Mississippi (MF) and Central Flyways during hunting seasons 1980–2003 to determine if and why harvest distributions changed. We used Geographic Information Systems to analyze spatial distributions of band recoveries and harvest estimated using data from the United States Fish and Wildlife Service Parts Collection Survey. Mean latitudes of band recoveries and harvest estimates showed no significant trends across the study period. Despite slight increases in band recoveries and harvest on the peripheries of kernel density estimates, most harvest occurred in eastern Arkansas and northwestern Mississippi, USA, in all years. We found no evidence for changes in the harvest distributions of mallards. We believe that the late 1990s were years of exceptionally high harvest in the lower MF and that slight shifts northward since 2000 reflect a return to harvest distributions similar to those of the early 1980s. Our results provide biologists with possible explanations to hunter concerns of fewer mallards available for harvest.     

Influence of Landscape Characteristics on Hunter Space Use and Success

Sport hunting of ungulates is a predominant recreational pursuit and the primary tool for managing their populations in North America and beyond, given its influence on ungulate distributions, social organization, and population performance. Similarly, land management, such as motorized vehicle access, influences ungulate distributions during and outside hunting seasons. Although research on ungulate responses to hunting and land use is widespread, knowledge gaps persist about space use of hunters and what landscape features discriminate among hunt types and between successful and unsuccessful hunters. We used telemetry location data from hunters (n = 341) to estimate space use from 2008–2013 during 3 types of controlled, 5-day hunts for antlered mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) and elk (Cervus canadensis) in northeastern Oregon, USA: archery elk, rifle deer, and rifle elk. To evaluate space use, we developed utilization distributions for each hunter, created core areas (50% contours) for groups of hunters, and derived several metrics of space-use overlap between successful and unsuccessful hunters. We also modeled predictors of space use using resource utilization functions with beta regression and stepwise model building. Hunter space use was compressed, with even the largest core area (unsuccessful rifle elk hunters) encompassing <16% (1,178 ha) of the area. We found strong similarities in space use of rifle hunters compared to archers, and core areas of successful hunters were markedly smaller than those of unsuccessful hunters (e.g., = 104 ha vs. 681 ha, respectively, for archers). Percentage cover and distance from open roads were the most consistent covariates in the 6 final models (successful vs. unsuccessful for each of 3 hunts) but with different signs. For example, predicted use of archery and rifle elk hunters increased with cover but decreased for rifle deer hunters. Although the same covariates were in the final models for unsuccessful and successful rifle elk hunters, their negligible spatial overlap suggested they sought those features in different locales, a pattern also documented for rifle deer hunters. Our models performed well (Spearman's rank correlation coefficients = 0.99 for 5 of 6 models), reflecting their utility for managing hunters and landscapes. Our results suggest that strategic management of open roads and forest cover can benefit managers seeking to balance hunter opportunity and satisfaction with harvest objectives, especially for species of special concern such as mule deer, and that differences in space use among hunter groups should be accounted for in hunting season designs. © 2021 The Wildlife Society. This article has been contributed to by US Government employees and their work is in the public domain in the USA.     

Evaluating how hunters see and react to telemetry collars on white-tailed deer

Fates of individuals outfitted with radiotransmitters commonly are used for estimating survival rates in populations of large animals that are hunted. Despite precautions, this practice may be subject to complex biases associated with hunter reaction to presence of radiotransmitters. To assess this potential bias we conducted an experiment using artificial deer (i.e., decoys) to measure hunters' abilities to see deer and determine if deer seen were wearing radiocollars. We used logistic regression to quantify probabilities that seeing deer and subsequently seeing radiocollars might be influenced by distance, percent visual obstruction, body orientation, hunter experience, and antler characteristics of deer. Additionally, we evaluated how experience and antler characteristics of deer might influence a hunter's decision to harvest a radiocollared deer. We found that 25.8% of the potentially observable collared deer (n = 663) were subsequently observed by hunters. Odds of observing deer and radiocollars increased 95% and 230%, respectively, for each additional log(yr) of hunting experience. Willingness to harvest radiocollared deer increased 89% for each additional log(yr) of hunting experience and 144% for large-antlered deer relative to antlerless deer. When hunting is an important source of mortality, analysts need to understand how potential biases associated with observing deer are associated with hunters' reactions to and subsequent decisions to harvest radiocollared animals. Our study suggested that presence of radiocollars may influence a deer's potential risk of being harvested and in turn bias telemetry-based estimates of survival, given that hunting mortality is the largest component of total mortality in hunted deer populations. Collar-based telemetry is used nearly universally by wildlife managers and researchers throughout North America and elsewhere to estimate and monitor the survival of big game populations that are managed through hunting. Our findings demonstrate that these estimates are likely subject to complex and systematic biases that managers should consider when evaluating future population-level effects of managed hunting. © 2011 The Wildlife Society     

How Size and Condition Influence Survival and Cause-Specific Mortality of Female Elk

The size of animal populations fluctuates with number of births, rate of immigration, rate of emigration, and number of deaths. For many ungulate populations, adult female survival is the most important factor influencing population growth. Therefore, increased understanding of survival and causes of mortality for adult females is fundamental for conservation and management. The objectives of our study were to quantify survival rates of female elk (Cervus canadensis) and determine cause-specific mortality. We predicted that hunter harvest would be the leading cause of mortality. Further, we predicted that hunters would harvest animals that were in prime age (2–9 yr) and in better condition than elk predated by mountain lions (Puma concolor). From 2015 to 2017, we captured 376 female elk in central Utah, USA. We assessed body size and condition of captured elk, fitted each animal with a global positioning system-collar, and determined cause of death when we received mortality signals. We estimated survival using Kaplan-Meier estimates and Cox proportional hazard models within an Akaike's Information Criterion model selection framework to identify covariates that influenced survival. We analyzed differences in size and condition measurements between harvested elk and predated elk using analysis of variance tests. Our best model indicated consistent survival across years; mean survival was 78.3 ± 3.5% (SE) including hunter harvest and 95.5 ± 1.7% without hunter harvest. In decreasing order of importance, elk mortality occurred from hunter harvest (21.2%), mountain lion predation (3.7%), depredation removal (0.5%), automobile collision (0.3%), disease (0.3%), complications during calving (0.3%), and those characterized as undetermined (1.3%). Neck circumference and body length were negatively associated with survival, suggesting that larger animals in good condition had lower survival as a result of hunter harvest. Individuals that died because of cougar predation were smaller and had less loin muscle than the average animal. Hunters removed large, healthy, prime-aged females, individuals that likely have a greater effect on population growth than elk lost to other predators. If the proportion of larger, healthy females in the population begins to decline, hunting practices may require adjustment because hunters may be removing individuals with the greatest reproductive value. © 2021 The Wildlife Society.     

Exploring the population dynamics of waterfowl hunters using a mark-recapture approach

The number of waterfowl hunters in the United States has declined since the 1980s despite relatively abundant waterfowl populations and liberal hunting regulations. Programs focused on recruiting, retaining, and reactivating (R3) waterfowl hunters have become important to avoid further losses in traditional revenue for habitat management and protection and political support for waterfowl conservation and management. We focus on 4 waterfowl hunter population vital rates (i.e., recruitment rate, retention probability, license purchase probability, realized population growth rate), which can be used to improve the effectiveness of waterfowl hunter R3 activities and initiatives by providing a deeper understanding of waterfowl hunter population dynamics to determine who programs should target, where programs should be targeted, and finally the evaluation of programs. To do so, we analyzed Nebraska state electronic license data from 2012–2019 using Pradel survival and recruitment models in a mark-recapture framework. Female waterfowl hunter recruitment was higher than males; however, retention and license purchase probabilities were lower. Recruitment was highest in younger generations and retention highest in older generations. License purchase probabilities were highest among those in the oldest and youngest generations. The availability of hunting opportunity increased license purchase probabilities but had a minimal influence on retention and no association with recruitment. There were weak relationships between rurality and recruitment, and retention and license purchase probabilities. Finally, belonging to Ducks Unlimited was positively associated with higher license purchase and retention probabilities. Targeting an increase in license purchase probability by promoting social support for hunters through conservation organization membership should be a focus of waterfowl hunter R3 efforts to have the greatest influence on increasing waterfowl hunter participation.     

Origins of harvested American black ducks: stable isotopes support the flyover hypothesis

Waterfowl management is more effective when based on detailed information on population connectivity between breeding, wintering, and stopover sites. For the American black duck (Anas rubripes), a species of conservation concern, estimates for the fall age ratio at harvest differed depending on whether harvest data were derived from Canada or the United States, suggesting regional differences. Within Canada, hunters in Atlantic Canada were more likely to harvest black ducks from nearby breeding locations compared to hunters in southern Ontario and Quebec, Canada, who were more likely to harvest individuals from the Boreal Softwood and Taiga Shield of eastern Canada. Black ducks harvested in the United States are thought to originate predominantly from northern portions of the breeding range, leading to the flyover hypothesis, which postulates that black ducks produced in the Boreal Softwood and Taiga Shield region are less susceptible to harvest by hunters in Atlantic Canada and northeastern United States. To test the flyover hypothesis, we examined regional and temporal differences in the origins of harvested black ducks using feathers from wings (n = 664) submitted by hunters to the species composition and parts collection surveys across 3 hunting seasons (2017–2018, 2018–2019, 2019–2020). We used a likelihood-based assignment method that relied on feather stable-hydrogen isotopes (δ²H) and stable-carbon isotopes (δ¹³C) to determine the natal or molt origin of individuals harvested within eastern Canada and the United States. We also used a spatial clustering technique to group harvested individuals by area of origin without a priori knowledge of such regions. Adult female black ducks originated farther south compared to males and juveniles. All sexes and ages of black ducks harvested in Atlantic Canada showed predominantly southern origins, while those harvested in the United States and other Canadian provinces primarily originated farther north within the boreal, supporting the flyover hypothesis. By contrast, we found no relationship between timing of harvest or peaks of migration and individual origin. After combining band returns and stable isotopes, we inferred 2 distinct stocks: the Mississippi flyway stock and the Atlantic flyway stock. We recommend that regional demographic parameters, particularly for Atlantic Canada, be directly measured to promote more effective conservation of black ducks and optimize harvest opportunities in the United States and Canada.