Growth patterns and age validation from otolith ring deposition in New Zealand longfin eels Anguilla dieffenbachii recaptured after 10 years at large

In 1998, 9500 juvenile New Zealand longfin eels Anguilla dieffenbachii (mean total length, L_T, 42 cm) captured from the lower Clutha River were transferred upstream to Lake Hawea, a high‐country oligotrophic lake in the same catchment where recruitment of juvenile eels has been prevented by hydroelectric dams since 1958. A total of 2010 of the transferred A. dieffenbachii were tagged with coded wire tags. Ten years later in 2008, the A. dieffenbachii population in Lake Hawea was sampled resulting in 399 recaptures (distinguishable by the presence of tags and by L_T from the remnant resident population of large old A. dieffenbachii) of the 1998 transfers; 79 (19·2%) of the recaptured fish had tags compared with 21·3% at release, indicating good tag retention and low mortality due to tagging. All recaptured tagged A. dieffenbachii were female. Mean annual growth over the 10 years since release was 3·80 cm year^?1 for all recaptures and 3·65 cm year^?1 for tag recaptures, and both were significantly greater than the estimate of 2·38 cm year^?1 at release. After release, mean condition (K) increased significantly (P < 0·001) for all recaptures and tag recaptures. Annual length growth increment was linear. Tag recaptures showed significant increases in somatic growth rate post‐transfer, and otoliths from the 2008 recaptured A. dieffenbachii were examined to see whether any similar enhanced growth after transfer was incorporated into the otolith structure that would serve as a date stamp. Measurement of otolith ring radii indicated that an increase in the radius occurred on most otoliths corresponding to the year after transfer. Because there was 9 years of completed growth following the observed growth inflection on the otoliths, this was strong evidence that opaque rings were formed annually.     

Age and growth of migrating tropical eels,Anguilla celebesensis and Anguilla marmorata

The age and growth of migrating tropical eels, Anguilla celebesensis and Anguilla marmorata from central Sulawesi, Indonesia, were examined. Migrating eels (63 A. celebesensis and 38 A. marmorata ) were obtained from weirs near the Poso Lake outlet and non‐migrating eels (35 A. celebesensis and 119 A. marmorata ) were captured by baited hooks, eel pots, scoop net and electro‐fishing in the Poso River system, Laa River system, Baluga River, Tongku River and Padapu River from February 2009 to October 2010. In both species, the proportion of eels with opaque otolith edges showed a single peak in July, suggesting that one annulus (a pair of translucent and opaque zones) was formed each year in their otoliths. Mean ± s.d . and range of total length (L _T) and age was 785·2 ± 114·9 (585–1083) mm and 7·5 ± 1·6 (5–11) years in migrating female A. celebesensis and 1132·2 ± 173·7 (800–1630) mm and 11·6 ± 3·3 (7–23) years in A. marmorata . The age of migrating female eels was negatively correlated with annual growth rate, 100·7 ± 17·2 (68·1–145·0) mm year^?1 in A. celebesensis and 97·9 ± 19·3 (66·6–131·6) mm year^?1 in A. marmorata , but there was no significant correlation between the L _T and annual growth rate in either species. The annual growth rates of these female tropical eels were typically higher than those of temperate anguillid species, suggesting a latitudinal cline in growth rate in the genus Anguilla reflecting the environmental conditions of their growth habitat.     

Latitudinal and altitudinal growth patterns of brown trout Salmo trutta at different spatial scales

Spatial variation in growth of stream‐dwelling brown trout Salmo trutta was explored in 13 populations using a long‐term study (1993–2004) in the Bay of Biscay drainage, northern Spain. The high variability in fork length (L_F) of S. trutta in the study area was similar to the body‐size range found in the entire European distribution of the species. Mean L_F at age varied: 0+ years, 57·4–100·7 mm; 1+ years, 111·6–176·0 mm; 2+ years, 155·6–248·4 mm and 3+ years, 194·3–290·9 mm. Average L_F at age was higher in main courses and lower reaches compared with small tributaries and upper reaches. Annual specific growth rates (G_L) were: 0+ to 1+ years, 0·634–0·825 mm mm⁻¹ year⁻¹; 1+ to 2+ years, 0·243–0·342 mm mm⁻¹ year⁻¹; 2+ to 3+ years, 0·166–0·222 mm mm⁻¹ year⁻¹, showing a great homogeneity. Regression models showed that water temperature and altitude were the major determinants of L_F at age variability within the study area. A broader spatial analysis using available data from stream‐dwelling S. trutta populations throughout Europe indicated a negative relationship between latitude and L_F of individuals and a negative interaction between latitude and altitude. These findings support previous evidence of the pervasive role of water temperature on the L_F of this species. Altitude appeared as the overall factor that includes the local variation of other variables, such as water temperature or food availability. At a larger scale, latitude was the factor that encompassed these environmental gradients and explained the differences in L_F of S. trutta. In summary, L_F at age in stream‐dwelling S. trutta decreases with latitude in Europe, the converse of Bergmann's rule.     

Population size,growth and movements of Anguilla australis in a small lake

To study growth rates, movements and estimate population size of shortfin eels Anguilla australis in a small lake (2·5 ha) near Christchurch, New Zealand, 617 A. australis were tagged with PIT tags. Tag retention was high (95%) and over the seven recapture events spread over 2 years, 55% of tagged A. australis were recaptured. Growth of recaptured A. australis averaged 13·1 mm year^?1 and declined slightly with increasing total length. Distance moved from original capture site increased with increasing time at large. Population estimates of A. australis > 400 mm (susceptible to capture by fyke net) from recaptures of individuals averaged 1451 A. australis, with a biomass of 170 kg ha^?1. An average of 6·6% of the estimated total population matured as male silver A. australis each year. Results from radio‐tracking of four A. australis gave an average nightly foraging area of 2780 m², and there was no apparent preference for inshore movement (within 5–6 m of the shoreline) or offshore movement. Fyke‐net efficiency (total catch relative to the estimated total population available to each net) measured over four consecutive nights fishing was 88%. The lack of precision of the shoreline triangulation system used, ±10 m, meant that the positional data were considered too coarse to be used in a proposed novel population estimation technique based on determining population size within foraging areas.     

Vital population statistics based on length frequency analysis of the exploited Japanese eel (Anguilla japonica) stock in the Kao‐Ping River,southern Taiwan

Vital statistics such as growth, mortality, and maturity parameters are crucial in understanding the population dynamics of a species. A total of 7 074 Japanese eels (Anguilla japonica) in the lower reach of the Kao‐Ping River, southern Taiwan, were collected with eel tubes in 1998 ～ 2004 and shrimp nets in 2004 ～ 2007. Data from 2004 were excluded due to mixed gear information and escapement of cultured eels; in subsequent years escaped cultured eels were identified and excluded from analyses. The estimated asymptotic length in the von Bertalanffy growth function (84.5–110 cm) was smaller, while the Brody growth parameter (0.30–0.44 year^?1) was higher using electronic length frequency analysis (ELEFAN) than when using Shepherd’s length composition analysis (SLCA). The total instantaneous mortality rate (Z) was around 1 for periods 1998–2003 and 2 year^?1 for 2005–2007 using length‐converted catch curves. The 95% confidence intervals of Z did not overlap for two of the periods, suggesting that the mortality rates were significantly higher during 2005–2007, possibly due to the introduction of shrimp nets. The maturity function differed significantly between sexes, indicating that females become silver eels at a larger size. The Japanese eels in the lower reach of the Kao‐Ping River were likely heavily exploited, thus management and conservation actions are strongly recommended.     

Life history of the red-banded seabream Pagrus auriga (Sparidae) from the coasts of the Canarian archipelago

Red‐banded seabream Pagrus auriga (N = 615) were caught off the Canary Islands from January 2003 to December 2004. Total length ranged from 120 to 780 mm. The species was characterized by protogynous hermaphroditism. The male :female ratio was in favour of females (1 : 8.2). The reproductive season extended from September to February, with a peak in spawning activity in October–November. Fifty percentage maturity was reached at 387 mm total length by females and 533 mm by males. The length–weight relationship for all individuals was described by the parameters: a = 0.0086 and b = 3.014, when length is given in mm and weight in grams. Otolith age readings indicated that the population consists of 19 age groups, including a very high proportion of individuals between 0 and 7 years old. Growth analysis reveals that the species is slow‐growing and relatively long lived (18 years). The von Bertalanffy growth parameters for the entire population were: L_∞ = 803 mm, k = 0.081 year⁻¹ and t₀ = −2.17 year. Growth differed between males and females. The instantaneous rate of natural mortality for all fish was: M = 0.164 year⁻¹.     

Growth of European eel Anguilla anguilla along the southern Baltic coast of Germany and implication for the eel management

To detect growth differences of European eel Anguilla anguilla along the southern German Baltic coast 728 yellow eels, with total lengths ranging from 256 to 944 mm and ages ranging from 3 to 15 years were collected from six coastal areas from 2005 to 2009. The estimation of the growth performance was based on the otolith increments. The mean growth rate of the female yellow eels varied from 56 to 62 mm?year^–1. No significant differences in the mean growth rate were detected between eels from inner and open coastal areas. The overall mean annual increment of eels was estimated at 59 mm?year^?1. Specific growth rates (SGR) of female yellow eels decreased with increasing age from 0.68 %?day^?1 in the first year to 0.05 %?day^?1 in the tenth year. Results indicate that no separation is needed in the development of population models or management initiatives based on the growth performance of eel in inner and open coastal waters of the southern German Baltic coast.     

Population biology and assessment of the white-spotted spinefoot, Siganus canaliculatus (Park, 1797), in the southern Arabian Gulf

The age, growth, mortality, reproduction and resource status of Siganus canaliculatus in the southern Arabian Gulf were investigated using a combination of size frequency, biological and size‐at‐age data. Defined structural increments consisting of alternating translucent and opaque bands in transverse sections of sagittal otoliths were validated as annuli. The maximum absolute age estimate was 7.8 years. Parameter values of the von Bertalanffy growth function fit to size‐at‐age data (males and females combined) were: k = 1.0, L_∞ = 24.8 cm (L_F), t_o = −0.1 years. Fish in spawning condition were only observed between April and July although patterns in gonadosomatic indices suggested a second but less well defined spawning event in November. The mean sizes and ages at first sexual maturity were 21.5 cm L_F (1.9 years) for males and 25.7 cm L_F (2.1 years) for females. Fish were fully recruited to the fishery at a size (L₁₀₀ = 19.7 cm L_F) that was smaller than the sizes at which sexual maturity was attained. The annual instantaneous rate of fishing mortality (F = 0.85 year⁻¹) (0.26–1.44 year⁻¹ 95% CI) was considerably greater than the target (F_opt = 0.33 year⁻¹) and limit (F_limit = 0.44 year⁻¹) biological reference points, indicating that the stock is overexploited.     

The changing times of Europe's largest remaining commercially harvested population of eel Anguilla anguilla L.

This study quantifies the processes involved in regulating the European eel population of Lough Neagh, a lake in Northern Ireland. The relationship between glass eel input and silver eel output for the 1923–1997 cohorts was best described by a Beverton–Holt stock recruitment model. Glass eel input time series was not complete and was thus derived from the relationship between catches elsewhere in Europe and Lough Neagh, together with the addition of stocked glass eel. Silver eel output was the sum of silver eel escapement, catch and yellow eel catch converted to silver eel equivalents. Natural mortality increased with glass eel density, ranging from 0.017 to 0.142 year⁻¹. The mean carrying capacity increased from ≈3.25 M silver eels (≈26 kg ha⁻¹) for the 1923–1943 cohorts to ≈5.0 M (≈40 kg ha⁻¹) for the 1948–1971 cohorts before regressing back to ≈3.25 M. The total silver eel output was highest during the late 1970s/early 1980s at 35–45 kg ha⁻¹ year⁻¹ and lowest during the early years of the 20th century and is currently at 10–15 kg ha⁻¹ year⁻¹. The findings are discussed in relation to (a) the ecological changes that have occurred within the lough, associated with eutrophication and the introduction of roach (Rutilus rutilus L.), and (b) the decline of the wider European eel stock across its distribution range. The findings from this study have relevance for the wider management of the European eel stock.     

Growth and Production of Yellow Eels and Glass Eels in Ponds

Two experiments (I and II) were performed in drainable ponds. Yellow eels Anguilla anguilla (L.) were stocked in early June at three biomasses: 10, 20 and 60 kg · ha⁻¹ in experiment I; and 10, 20 and 40 kg · ha⁻¹ in experiment II. The mean body weights were 27.0 and 24.2 g respectively. Glass eels were stocked only in experiment II at equal densities of 1600·ha⁻¹. In both experiments each biomass of yellow eel was combined in a factorial design with three cyprinid communities differing in biomass and in species- and size-composition. The ponds were drained in autumn. The final body weights at draining ranged from 25.9 to 63.6 g for yellow eel and from 3.9 to 8.8 g for glass eel. The final body weights of yellow eel and of glass eel decreased with increasing biomass of yellow eel. No significant relation was found between the bream Abramis brama (L.) biomass and the growth of eel. The growth rates of yellow eel and glass eel were positively correlated in experiment II. At higher biomasses of yellow eel the percentage females decreased slightly. The recapture rates of yellow eel in experiments I and II amounted to 69.4 ± 9.8 % and 92.2 ± 4.9% (mean ± sd) respectively. The lower recapture rates in experiment I were caused by the inappropriate draining technique used. The glass eels were recaptured with 75.0·5.6% efficiency. The maximum net production of yellow eel occurred at a biomass of 20–40kg·ha⁻¹ and amounted to 19 kg·ha⁻¹.     

Life history strategy of sandy sprat Hyperlophus vittatus (Clupeidae): a comparison with clupeoids of the Indo-Pacific and southern Australia

The life history strategy of sandy sprat (whitebait) Hyperlophus vittatus was compared to those of other clupeoids found in the Indo‐Pacific and southern Australia. Hyperlophus vittatus is a small (100 mm, fork‐length, FL) pelagic species that spawns in inshore waters of southern Australia. The average growth rate for larvae (20.1–27.6 mm, total length, TL) inside the Coorong Lagoon was 0.12 mm day⁻¹. Von Bertalanffy growth parameters were k = 1.83 year⁻¹ and L_∞ = 78.10 mm and the oldest fish was ∼4 years of age. Males and females attained 50% sexual maturity at 59 and 58 mm FL, respectively, and all individuals were sexually mature at lengths ≥75 mm, at ∼1.5 years of age. Macroscopic gonad staging showed the spawning season extended from October to February (spring and summer) and peaked during November. Mean egg densities were highest between September and November. Females produced batches of pelagic eggs at a mean frequency of 5 days and batch fecundities ranged between 743 and 5600 hydrated oocytes. The life history of H. vittatus is similar to those of larger, iteroparous clupeoids that occur in southern temperate Australian waters, e.g. sardine Sardinops sagax and Australian anchovy Engraulis australis, and dissimilar to those of small tropical clupeoids and the sympatric blue sprat Spratelloides robustus, which is semelparous.     

Seasonal and inter-stream variations in the population dynamics, growth and secondary production of an algivorous fish (Pseudogastromyzon myersi: Balitoridae) in monsoonal Hong Kong

1. Balitorid loaches are widespread and highly diverse in Asian streams, yet their life history and ecology have received little attention. We investigated seasonal (wet versus dry season) and spatial variation in populations of algivorous Pseudogastromyzon myersi in Hong Kong, and estimated the magnitude of secondary production by this fish in pools in four streams (two shaded and two unshaded) over a 15‐month period. 2. Mean population densities of P. myersi ranged from 6.0 to 23.2 individuals m⁻², constituting more than half (and typically >70%) of benthic fishes censused. Abundance was c. 25% greater in the wet season, when recruitment occurred. Significant density differences among streams were not related to shading conditions and were evident despite small‐scale variations in P. myersi abundance among pools. Mean biomass varied among streams from 0.85 to 3.87 g ash‐free dry weight (AFDW) m⁻². Spatial and seasonal patterns in biomass and density were similar, apart from some minor disparities attributable to differences in mean body size among populations. 3. All four P. myersi populations bred once a year in June and July, and life spans varied from 24 to 26 months. Populations consisted of three cohorts immediately after recruitment but, for most of the study period, only two cohorts were evident. Cohort‐specific growth rates did not differ significantly among streams but, in all streams, younger cohorts had higher cohort‐specific growth rates. 4. Secondary production of P. myersi estimated by the size‐frequency (SF) method was 2.7–11.5 g AFDW m⁻² year⁻¹ and almost twice that calculated by the increment‐summation (IS) method (1.2–6.6 g AFDW m⁻² year⁻¹). Annual P/B ratios were 1.17 – 2.16 year⁻¹ (IS) and 2.73 – 3.22 year⁻¹ (SF). Highest production was recorded in an unshaded stream and the lowest in a shaded stream, but site rankings by production did not otherwise match shading conditions. Wet‐season production was six times greater than dry‐season production, and daily production fell to almost zero during January and February. Cool temperatures (<17 °C) may have limited fish activity and influenced detectability during some dry‐season censuses. Estimates of abundance and annual production by P. myersi are therefore conservative. 5. Comparisons with the literature indicate that the abundance and production of P. myersi in Hong Kong was high relative to other benthic fishes in tropical Asia, or their temperate counterparts in small streams. Manipulative experiments are needed to determine the influence of P. myersi, and algivorous balitorids in general, on periphyton dynamics and energy flow in Asian streams.     

Fast response of freshwater consumers to a new trophic resource: Predation on the recently introduced Asian bivalve Limnoperna fortunei in the lower Paraná river,South America

Abstract Comparison of Limnoperna fortunei numbers and biomass in screened (5, 15 and 40 mm) and unscreened cages deployed for 18 months in the lower Paraná delta indicates that predators harvest 26–79% (numbers), or 20–85% (biomass) of the mussel population. Predation impact decreases with mussel size. On average, 6 kg of whole live mussel × m⁻² × year⁻¹ (0.36 g of dry mussel tissue × m⁻² × day⁻¹) were eliminated from the unscreened cages. Cages with 15 and 40 mm screens lost between 1 and 2 kg × m⁻² × year⁻¹. Aquatic mammals, birds, and especially fish, are probably the main consumers of large mussels. Small L. fortunei are most probably eaten by fish and also by several invertebrates, including crustaceans, leeches and gastropods. It is suggested that L. fortunei intercepts a significant fraction of the organic carbon that the Paraná‐Uruguay rivers flush into the ocean, locally boosting numbers of benthophagous animals, deposit feeders and, indirectly, higher level predators. Our results indicate that only 15 years after its first introduction in South America this invasive species is very actively consumed by local predators, but predatory suppression of the mussel seems very unlikely. Comparisons with the effects reported for the zebra mussel (Dreissena polymorpha) in Europe and North America suggest that L. fortunei is consumed more actively and that its negative impact on the local fauna is more restricted. These differences are attributed to the fact that while D. polymorpha feeds chiefly on plankton, a limited resource, L. fortunei feeds on detrital particulate organic matter, whose supply in these large South American rivers largely exceeds consumption.     

Age, growth and mortality of a semi-isolated lagoon population of sand smelt, Atherina boyeri (Risso, 1810) (Pisces: Atherinidae) in an estuarine system of northern Greece

Age, growth and mortality of the sand smelt, Atherina boyeri (Risso, 1810), were studied in the Vistonis estuarine system in northern Greece from February 1989 to August 1990. Overall male : female sex ratio was 1 : 2.5, statistically different from unity. Total lengths ranged between 13 and 105 mm. Age determination based on scale readings showed that the population comprised five age‐groups. Sand smelt grew allometrically (b = 3.22) and rapidly during the first year, achieving 60% of their growth. Growth parameters of the population were: L_∞ = 116.97 mm, K = 0.35 year⁻¹ and t_o = −0.99 years. Growth index ϕ′ was 3.69 of all individuals studied. The mean growth index was significantly lower for the Mediterranean lagoon (ϕ′ = 3.73, SD = 0.1) than for Atlantic populations (ϕ′ = 3.92, SD = 0.06). Total mortality rate was Z = 1.29 year⁻¹ and natural mortality M = 0.95 year⁻¹. Males had a lower life span than females, the latter dominating length classes >60 mm. Exploitation rate of the studied population was E = 0.26, suggesting that stock size might increase and generate improved possibilities for exploitation.     

Age and growth in pink cusk-eel (Genypterus blacodes) off the Chilean austral zone: evaluating differences between management fishing zones

The von Bertalanffy (vB) growth parameters for pink cusk‐eel (Genypterus blacodes) were estimated for the Chilean austral‐zone (41°28′–57°00′S) by gender and management fishing zones. A total of 47 026 samples were collected between March 1982 and May 2004, with total length ranging from 19 to 154 cm. Age determinations, based on the reading of saggital otoliths, were between 1 and 14 years in males and between 1 and 16 years in females. Statistical differences in growth were found between the sexes and management fishing zones. For the combined sexes the vB growth parameters for the northern‐austral zone (41°28′–47°00′S) were: l_∞=111.452 cm, k = 0.186 year⁻¹, t₀ = −0.912 year; and for the southern‐austral zone (47°00′–57°00′S): l_∞ = 123.447 cm, k = 0.147 year⁻¹, t₀ = −1.779 year.     

Age and growth parameters of shark‐like batoids

Estimates of life‐history parameters were made for shark‐like batoids of conservation concern Rhynchobatus spp. (Rhynchobatus australiae, Rhynchobatus laevis and Rhynchobatus palpebratus) and Glaucostegus typus using vertebral ageing. The sigmoid growth functions, Gompertz and logistic, best described the growth of Rhynchobatus spp. and G. typus, providing the best statistical fit and most biologically appropriate parameters. The two‐parameter logistic was the preferred model for Rhynchobatus spp. with growth parameter estimates (both sexes combined) L_∞ = 2045 mm stretch total length, L_ST and k = 0·41 year^?1. The same model was also preferred for G. typus with growth parameter estimates (both sexes combined) L_∞ = 2770 mm L_ST and k = 0·30 year^?1. Annual growth‐band deposition could not be excluded in Rhynchobatus spp. using mark‐recaptured individuals. Although morphologically similar G. typus and Rhynchobatus spp. have differing life histories, with G. typus longer lived, slower growing and attaining a larger maximum size.     

Population Biology and Growth of Ozark Cavefish in Logan Cave National Wildlife Refuge, Arkansas

Ozark cavefish, Amblyopsis rosae, is a threatened species endemic to the Springfield Plateau of the Ozark Highlands in Arkansas, Missouri, and Oklahoma. One of the largest known Ozark cavefish populations, located in Logan Cave, Arkansas, was surveyed 25 times over a two-year period between 1993 and 1995. During the study, 147 Ozark cavefish > 30 mm (TL) were marked with visual implant tags and 140 Ozark cavefish were available for recapture; 68 were recaptured 189 times and the rest (72) were never recaptured. Individual Ozark cavefish persisted in Logan Cave for a relatively short time. Only 14% of 80 fish tagged during a previous study in 1992 were recaptured during this study, and half of all recaptured fish disappeared within three months. However, if a fish persisted for at least seven months in the cave, its probability of being recaptured over an additional year was high. Maximum persistence of a tagged fish was 28 months, suggesting these fish have a maximum life-span of 4–5 years. Growth averaged 0.6 mm per month, with maximum recorded growth of 6 mm per month and a maximum size of 65 mm TL. Smaller fish grew faster than larger fish but growth rates were sporadic, with several mid-sized fish (45–49 mm) showing little growth (0–3 mm year^-1) while some fish > 50 mm grew up to 12 mm year^-1. Most fish gained in length during April–October, the same period a maternity colony of gray bats occupied the cave. Gross Ozark cavefish movement over the study period ranged up to 1002 m, with a mean movement of 1.2 m day^-1; movement was positively correlated with Ozark cavefish total length. Death seemed the most likely explanation for loss of tagged Ozark cavefish, including fish that emigrated out of the cave. Little up-stream movement was recorded between reaches and did not account for loss of tagged fish. Reproduction within the cave and immigration from the aquifer accounted for persistence of Ozark cavefish in Logan Cave.     

Extraordinary growth in tiger sharks Galeocerdo cuvier from the South Atlantic Ocean

Two tagged‐and‐recaptured tiger sharks Galeocerdo cuvier, measuring 172 and 304 cm total length (L_T) and at age 0·75 and 3·50 years, exhibited unmatched growth rates of 118·4 and 55·5 cm year^?1, respectively. The larger fish was nearly mature, indicating that G. cuvier off Brazil could mature considerably earlier than conspecifics from other regions.     

Optimizing the mass marking of fish with alizarin red S: an example with glass eels

Fish marking is an essential tool for fisheries management, especially for evaluating the stocking of endangered fish species to support conservation and sustainable use of fish stocks. Batch marking of young European eels Anguilla anguilla (L.) prior to stocking is recommended as the benefits of stocking for the spawning stock can be evaluated by recapturing marked fish over time, therefore mass marking of young eels with substances such as alizarin red S (ARS) is becoming increasingly important. To improve the marking method and reduce marking costs when immersing glass eels in an ARS solution, eight laboratory experiments under varying conditions (e.g., temperature, ARS concentration, immersion time, osmotic induction, fish density) and with ARS from different suppliers were carried out. The results show that optimal marking of glass eels can be carried out in the field or during transport by putting approximately 50 g of glass eels per liter in 150 mg L⁻¹ ARS solution for 3 h at 10–15°C. Lower concentrations did not result in reliable marking. Water temperatures of 5°C and below can have a stunning effect on the eels and increase mortality significantly, regardless of the concentration of ARS. Glass eel densities below 50 g L⁻¹ in the marking bath increase marking costs unnecessarily, while a higher density of 100 g L⁻¹ resulted in significantly higher mortality and lower marking success. A somewhat more difficult but less expensive alternative is to bathe the fish in a saline solution of 1% (10 PSU) of 80 mg L⁻¹ ARS for 3 h at 10°C. Costs can also be significantly reduced by choice of supplier for ARS, but care should be taken as the quality of the powder appears to vary (mean percentage of sufficiently marked eels ranged from 59% to 91% among suppliers in the present study) and can lead to marking failure. The optimal marking conditions can help ensure that stocked glass eels can be reliably identified in future studies to assess stocking benefits while reducing costs.     

Growth and production of a tropical predatory shrimp, Macrobrachium hainanense (Palaemonidae), in two Hong Kong streams

1. Macrobrachium hainanense is a predatory palaemonid shrimp (total length >7 cm) that can be abundant [density 3–5 m^?2; biomass 484–606 mg ash‐free dry mass (AFDM) m^?2] in forest streams in Hong Kong, China. This study investigated the growth and production of M. hainanense during 2001 and 2002 in pools of two forested streams (one third‐ and one fourth‐order). 2. The growth of tagged individuals was recorded in situ and compared with that of tagged and untagged shrimps in laboratory tanks. Field and laboratory estimates yielded similar growth rates of 0.7 mm carapace length (CL) per month, and instantaneous growth rate was 0.004 g AFDM g^?1 day^?1. Tagging did not affect growth in the laboratory. Cohort analysis of field populations produced similar estimates of growth to that of tagged individuals, and the growth of M. hainanense was generally slower than has been reported for other Macrobrachium species. Mass‐specific growth rate of M. hainanense in the field varied with size and was two to five times higher in small individuals (<10 mm CL). In addition, growth rate varied with season and was 40% lower in the dry season when temperature was at the annual minimum. 3. Males grew bigger than females (36 versus 25 mm CL). The minimum lifespan of M. hainanense in the field, calculated from size‐specific growth rates, ranged from 29.3 months (females) to 47.6 months (males). Male lifespan derived from cohort analysis was estimated as 48 and 46 months in the two streams. Females reached maturity in 17–18 months (at 15–17 mm CL) while males matured at 24–26 months (at 18–22 mm CL). Females bred twice (at 2 and 3 years of age) while males probably bred three times (at 2, 3 and 4 years) in both streams. 4. Macrobrachium hainanense production in the fourth‐order stream, calculated by the size‐frequency method, was 900 and 1096 mg AFDM m^?2 year^?1 (for 2001 and 2002, respectively) with a production/biomass (P/B) of 2.1–2.3 year^?1. In the third‐order stream, production was 987 and 1304 mg AFDM m^?2 year^?1 (for 2001 and 2002, respectively) with a P/B of 1.7–2.1 year^?1. Production estimates based on the instantaneous growth method were half of those obtained by the size‐frequency method. 5. Although M. hainanense production at the third‐order stream exceeded that in the fourth‐order, growth rates showed the opposite pattern and were 0.31–0.43 mm CL month^?1 and 0.56–0.65 mm CL month^?1 in the third‐ and fourth‐order streams, respectively. Greater mortality in the latter may account for low production at a site where growth rate was high. 6. Production of M. hainanense in both streams was lower during 2001 when rainfall was higher. This may reflect the influence of spates associated with monsoonal rains, which could have reduced M. hainanense production through spate‐induced mortality or by reducing the abundance of prey. This study provides the first in situ estimate of secondary production by a non‐commercial Macrobrachium species in Asia or elsewhere. It involved a whole‐pool approach to sampling that allowed the estimation of production and population parameters on a realistic scale.