GC/MS based identification of skunk spray maliciously deployed as “biological weapon” to harm civilians

Our laboratory has been asked to elucidate the origin of a strong “toxic smell” present in a prominent politician's office, private house and motorcar. This stinky and pungent atmosphere has caused serious nausea and vomiting to several individuals. Urine samples were collected from the persons presenting symptoms of nausea for toxicological analysis. Drops, paper and cotton swabs of an oily liquid found at the implicated places were submitted by police to our laboratory for investigation. Methanol extracts of the drops were acetylated for gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) analysis in the electron impact mode; the cotton and paper swabs were analysed using headspace-gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (HS-GC/MS). The GC/MS analysis of the acetylated methanol extracts revealed that the major peaks of the chromatogram could be attributed to 2-methylquinoline, to 2-quinolinemethanethiol, to S-2-quinolinemethyl thioacetate, to 2-phenylethanethiol, to bis(E)-2-butenyl disulphide and to bis(3-methylbutyl) disulphide. Several volatile sulphur-containing compounds have been identified with the HS-GC/MS system. Detailed examination of the spectra as well as GC/MS analysis of commercially available skunk secret allowed us to relate the identified compounds to those present in the defence spray of skunks. No health sequels were observed for any of the persons implicated in this case.     

Chemical derivatization and mass spectral libraries in metabolic profiling by GC/MS and LC/MS/MS

An overview is presented of gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) and liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (LC/MS), the two major hyphenated techniques employed in metabolic profiling that complement direct 'fingerprinting' methods such as atmospheric pressure ionization (API) quadrupole time-of-flight MS, API Fourier transform MS, and NMR. In GC/MS, the analytes are normally derivatized prior to analysis in order to reduce their polarity and facilitate chromatographic separation. The electron ionization mass spectra obtained are reproducible and suitable for library matching, mass spectral collections being readily available. In LC/MS, derivatization and library matching are at an early stage of development and mini-reviews are provided. Chemical derivatization can dramatically increase the sensitivity and specificity of LC/MS methods for less polar compounds and provides additional structural information. The potential of derivatization for metabolic profiling in LC/MS is demonstrated by the enhanced analysis of plant extracts, including the potential to measure volatile acids such as formic acid, difficult to achieve by GC/MS. The important role of mass spectral library creation and usage in these techniques is discussed and illustrated by examples.     

Microheterogeneity of the mammalian high mobility group (HMG) proteins 1 and 2 investigated by reverse-phase high performance liquid chromatography

Microheterogeneity within the high mobility group (HMG)-1 and HMG-2 groups of nonhistone chromatin proteins has been investigated using reverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC) under conditions (acetonitrile elution with 0.1% trifluoroacetic acid (TFA) as the counter ion) which separate proteins primarily on the basis of differences in their overall hydrophobicity. RP-HPLC proved to be a fast and efficient means for separating multiple subspecies of both the HMG-1 and HMG-2 proteins from both crude nuclear extracts and from ion-exchange column "purified" protein samples obtained from different types of mammalian cell nuclei. In crude nuclear extracts at least eight different HMG-2 protein species (two major and six minor), but only one major HMG-1 species, could be resolved by RP-HPLC. Three of the minor HMG-2 protein species could be isolated in "pure" form from crude extracts in one RP-HPLC step whereas under the same conditions the two major HMG-2 peaks (as well as the other minor species) were contaminated with either HMG-1 or HMG-3 (a degradation product of HMG-1). In crude extracts the major HMG-1 fraction always seems to be contaminated with one of the HMG-2 subfractions. RP-HPLC analysis of apparently "pure" protein preparations isolated by ion-exchange chromatography techniques revealed that "pure" HMG-1 can be resolved into at least three different protein species and "pure" HMG-2 into at least four different species. Amino acid analyses of different resolvable forms of the HMG proteins were not inconsistent with the suggestion that at least some of these may be primary sequence variants of the individual proteins, but other possibilities also exist.     

Analysis of the metabolites of ethyl loflazepate by gas chromatography with electron-capture detection

A gas chromatographic assay with electron-capture detection (GC—EC) is described for the metabolites of ethyl loflazepate (Victan), a new benzodiazepine with a potent anti-anxiety activity, in biological fluids. Since the parent drug undergoes a first-pass effect, pharmacokinetic data may only be obtained by measuring the total levels of two of the major metabolites. Accurate data can not be obtained for the metabolites separately since one of them (M1) is chemically transformed to the other (M2) during plasma sampling, storage and extraction.A sensitive, specific and accurate GC—EC assay is developed using a synthetic analogue of M2 as an internal standard. The limit of detection in plasma is approximately 2 ng/ml and the precision about 3% (within-run and between-run).The method is applied to plasma samples collected after oral administration of 2 mg and 4 mg of the drug in tablet form to human volunteers. The results obtained are correlated with those from an existing gas chromatographic—mass spectrometric assay. A very good correlation between the results (inter-laboratory comparison) is obtained, validating both techniques.     

The effect of tamoxifen and raloxifene on estrogen metabolism and endometrial cancer risk

Selective estrogen receptor modulators (SERMs) demonstrate differential endometrial cancer (EC) risk. While tamoxifen (TAM) use increases the risk of endometrial hyperplasia and malignancy, raloxifene (RAL) has neutral effects on the uterus. How TAM increases the risk of EC and why TAM and RAL differentially modulate the risk for EC, however, remain elusive. Here, we tested the hypothesis that TAM increases the risk for EC, at least in part, by enhancing the local estrogen biosynthesis and directing estrogen metabolism towards the formation of genotoxic and hormonally active estrogen metabolites. In addition, the differential effects of TAM and RAL in EC risk are attributed to their differential effect on estrogen metabolism/metabolites. The endometrial cancer cell line (Ishikawa cells) and the nonmalignant immortalized human endometrial glandular cell line (EM1) were used for the study. The profile of estrogen/estrogen metabolites (EM), depurinating estrogen-DNA adducts, and the expression of estrogen-metabolizing enzymes in cells treated with 17β-estradiol (E2) alone or in combination with TAM or RAL were investigated using high performance liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization-tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-ESI-MS(2)), ultraperformance liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS), and Western blot analysis, respectively. TAM significantly increased the total EM and enhanced the formation of hormonally active and carcinogenic estrogen metabolites, 4-hydroxestrone (4-OHE1) and 16α-hydroxyestrone, with concomitant reduction in the formation of antiestrogenic and anticarcinogenic 2-hydroxyestradiol and 2-methoxyestradiol. Furthermore, TAM increased the formation of depurinating estrogen-DNA adducts 4-OHE1 [2]-1-N7Guanine and 4-OHE1 [2]-1-N3 Adenine. TAM-induced alteration in EM and depurinating DNA adduct formation is associated with altered expression of estrogen metabolizing enzymes CYP1A1, CYP1B1, COMT, NQO1, and SF-1 as revealed by Western blot analysis. In contrast to TAM, RAL has minimal effect on EM, estrogen-DNA adduct formation, or estrogen-metabolizing enzymes expression. These data show that TAM perturbs the balance of estrogen-metabolizing enzymes and alters the disposition of estrogen metabolites, which can explain, at least in part, the mechanism for TAM-induced EC. These results also implicate the differential effect of TAM and RAL on estrogen metabolism/metabolites as a potential mechanism for their disparate effects on the endometrium.     

Microheterogeneity of the mammalian high-mobility group proteins 14 and 17 investigated by reverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatography

Microheterogeneity within the HMG-14 and HMG-17 group of nonhistone chromatin proteins has been investigated using reverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC) under conditions (acetonitrile elution with 0.1% trifluoroacetic acid as a weak ion-pairing agent) which separate proteins primarily on the basis of differences in their overall hydrophobicities. Ion-pair RP-HPLC proves to be a fast and efficient means for separating multiple subspecies of both the HMG-14 and the -17 proteins from both crude nuclear extracts and from ion-exchange column-purified protein samples obtained from different types of mammalian cell nuclei. In crude nuclear extracts at least two different HMG-14 protein species (one major and one minor) and three different HMG-17 species (two major and one minor) can be resolved by ion-pair RP-HPLC. The identity and purity of these HMG-14 and -17 protein species were assayed by polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and amino acid analysis. The amount of HMG protein microheterogeneity observed by RP-HPLC equals or exceeds that found for these proteins by other analytical techniques and the results suggest that this heterogeneity may be due to factors other than protein size or overall net charge variability.     

Sequential GC/MS analysis of sialic acids,monosaccharides, and amino acids of glycoproteins on a single sample as heptafluorobutyrate derivatives

A GC/MS procedure was developed for the analysis of all major constituents of glycoproteins. The rationale for this approach is that by using GC/MS analysis of the constituents as heptafluorobutyrate derivatives, it was possible to quantitatively determine the sialic acid, monosaccharide, fatty acids (when present), and the amino acid composition with the sample remaining in the same reaction vessel during the entire procedure. A mild acid hydrolysis was used to liberate sialic acids and was followed by formation of methyl-esters of heptafluorobutyrate (HFB) derivatives. After GC/MS analysis of sialic acids, the remaining material was submitted to acid-catalyzed methanolysis followed by the formation of HFB derivatives. After GC/MS analysis of the monosaccharides, the sample was supplemented with norleucine (as internal standard) and hydrolyzed with 6 M HCl followed by the formation of isoamyl-esters of HFB derivatives and GC/MS analysis. His and Trp residues were modified during the step of acid-catalyzed methanolysis, but the resulting derivatives were stable during acid hydrolysis and quantitatively recovered by GC/MS analysis. As a result, all constituents of glycoproteins (sialic acids, monosaccharides (or di- and trisaccharides) and amino acids) are identified in the electron impact mode of ionization and quantified using three GC/MS analysis in the same chromatographic conditions and using a limited number of reagents, a considerable advantage over previous techniques. This method is very sensitive, all data (qualitative and quantitative) being obtained at the sub-nanomolar level of initial material.     

Assay of the glutathione-synthesizing enzymes by high-performance liquid chromatography

We report a new convenient assay of the activity of gamma-glutamylcysteine synthetase (EC 6.3.2.2) and glutathione synthetase (EC 6.3.2.3) in crude microbial extracts as well as in purified enzyme preparations. The assay is based on the quantitative analysis of the reaction products by high-performance liquid chromatography after derivatization of the thiol group with 5,5'-dithiobis-(2-nitrobenzoic acid) as described by J. Reeve, J. Kuhlenkamp, and N. Kaplowitz [(1980) J. Chromatogr. 194, 424-428]. In addition, the procedure yields information on basal levels of gamma-glutamylcysteine and glutathione in crude microbial extracts. The two enzymes responsible for glutathione biosynthesis can be determined in parallel under the same chromatographic conditions. No prior separation from substrates and by-products is necessary. Product formation is linear with time for at least 30 min between 0.03 and 12 mU for both enzymes. Even in crude extracts 0.2-0.5 nmol of products formed can be detected with certainty. The method was found to be sensitive and highly reproducible.     

Glutathione S-transferases in Festuca arundinacea: identification, characterization and inducibility by safener benoxacor

Over recent years it has emerged how certain no crop-species can be employed in phytoremediating contaminated soils or preventing herbicide pollution; in this contest Festuca arundinacea was investigated. Shoots of Festuca were submitted to fast protein liquid chromatography in order to identify their glutathione S-transferases (GST; EC 2.5.1.18), by a combination of anionic, affinity and RP-HPLC chromatography. The chromatographic procedure revealed satisfactory yield and four GSTs were identified: they were named FaGST I, FaGST II, FaGST III and FaGST IV. Among these, significant differences were observed in the chromatographic behaviours, structure, activity toward a "model" substrate, 1-chloro-2,4-dinitrobenzene, and responsiveness to the herbicide safener benoxacor. FaGST I showed the highest activity toward the above substrate, and this activity was up-regulated by the herbicide safener. Therefore, FaGST I was purified till homogeneity and was determined to be an heterodimer consisting of two subunits of 28.0 and 27.2kDa. Each subunit of FaGST I was further characterized by means of LC-ESI-MS/MS and immunoblotting analysis, which revealed that both the subunits belong to the tau subclass.     

The analysis of pyrrolizidine alkaloids in Jacobaea vulgaris; a comparison of extraction and detection methods

Introduction – Pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs) serve an important function in plant defence. Objective – To compare different extraction methods and detection techniques, namely gas chromatography with nitrogen phosphorus detection (GC‐NPD) and liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC‐MS/MS) with quadrupole analysers for analysing PAs in Jacobaea vulgaris. Methodology – Both formic acid and sulfuric acid were tested for PA extraction from dry plant material. For GC‐NPD, reduction is required to transform PA N‐oxides into tertiary amines. Zinc and sodium metabisulfite were compared as reducing agents. Results – The lowest PA concentration measured with GC‐NPD was approximately 0.03 mg/g and with LC‐MS/MS 0.002 mg/g. The detection of major PAs by both techniques was comparable but a number of minor PAs were not detected by GC‐NPD. With the LC‐MS/MS procedure higher concentrations were found in plant extracts, indicating that losses may have occurred during the sample preparation for the GC‐NPD method. Zinc proved a more effective reducing agent than sodium metabisulfite. The sample preparation for LC‐MS/MS analysis using formic acid extraction without any reduction and purification steps is far less complex and less time consuming compared to GC‐NPD analysis with sulfuric acid extraction and PA N‐oxide reduction with zinc and purification. Conclusions – In terms of sensitivity and discrimination, formic acid extraction in combination with LC‐MS/MS detection is the method of choice for analysing PAs (both free and N‐oxides forms) in plant material. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Estrone and estradiol metabolism in vivo in human breast cysts

Fibrocystic disease of the breast manifesting palpable cysts express breast cyst fluids frequently containing estrogen sulfates at concentrations far exceeding those found in sera of the patient. The study explored the potential of the breast cyst to synthesize some of these estrogen sulfates. Deuterated estrone and estradiol were synthesized and either (estradiol, 4 cases or estrone, 2 cases) was injected into a cyst. The cyst was aspirated at approximately 0, 4 and 8 h, the target being 1 ml, 50% and complete aspiration respectively. Metabolites were purified sequentially by ether extraction, enzymatic hydrolysis of estrogen conjugates, chromatography on Sephadex LH 20 and identified by gas chromatography linked to mass spectrometry. The unconjugated fraction isolated from the ether extract was subjected to the same purification and detection scheme. Among the conjugates, deuterated estrone sulfate was the major metabolite of either precursor in all studies, while estradiol sulfate was not detected in any of the 6 experiments. The sulfate fractions also yielded traces of 16alpha-hydroxyestrone (2 studies), 4-hydroxyestrone (4 studies) and 2-hydroxyestrone (1 study). In the unconjugated fraction, one study with deuterated estradiol, 4- hydroxyestrone was obtained. In one study with deuterated estrone, traces of 2-hydroxyestrone and 16alpha- hydroxyestrone were obtained. These novel data are significant because patients with fibrocystic disease are at slightly elevated risk for developing breast cancer and 16alpha-hydroxyestrone and 4- hydroxyestrone are reported carcinogens.     

An approach to the chemotaxonomic differentiation of two European dog's mercury species: Mercurialis annua L. and M. perennis L

Mercurialis annua and M. perennis are medicinal plants used in complementary medicine. In the present work, analytical methods to allow a chemotaxonomic differentiation of M. annua and M. perennis by means of chemical marker compounds were established. In addition to previously published compounds, the exclusive presence of pyridine-3-carbonitrile and nicotinamide in CH(2) Cl(2) extracts obtained from the herbal parts of M. annua was demonstrated by GC/MS. Notably, pyridine-3-carbonitrile was identified for the first time as a natural product. Further chromatographic separation of the CH(2) Cl(2) extracts via polyamide yielded a MeOH fraction exhibiting a broad spectrum of side-chain saturated n-alkylresorcinols. While the n-alkylresorcinol pattern was similar for both plant species, some specific differences were observed for particular n-alkylresorcinol homologs. Finally, the investigation of H(2) O extracts by LC/MS/MS revealed the presence of depside constituents. Whereas, in M. perennis, a mixture of mercurialis acid (=(2R)-[(E)-caffeoyl]-2-oxoglutarate) and phaselic acid (=(E)-caffeoyl-2-malate) could be detected, in M. annua solely phaselic acid was found. By comparison with synthesized enantiomerically pure (2R)- and (2S)-phaselic acids, the configuration of the depside could be determined as (2S) in M. annua and as (2R) in M. perennis.     

Intact glucosinolate analysis in plant extracts by programmed cone voltage electrospray LC/MS: performance and comparison with LC/MS/MS methods

We present a comprehensive, sensitive, and highly specific negative ion electrospray LC/MS method for identifying all structural classes of glucosinolates in crude plant extracts. The technique is based on the observation of simultaneous maxima in the abundances of the m/z 96 and 97 ions, generated by programmed cone voltage fragmentation, in the mass chromatogram. The abundance ratios lie in the range 1:2-1:4 ([m/z 96]/[m/z 97]). Examination of the corresponding full-scan mass spectra allows individual glucosinolates of all structural classes to be identified rapidly and with confidence. The use of linearly programmed cone voltage fragmentation enhances characteristic fragment ions without compromising the abundance of the analytically important [M - H]- ion and its associated (and analytically useful) sulfur isotope peaks. Detection limits are in the low nanogram range for full-scan, programmed cone voltage spectra. Comparison of the technique with LC/MS/MS methods (product ion, precursor ion, and constant neutral loss scans) has shown that the sensitivity and selectivity of the programmed cone voltage method is superior. Data obtained on a variety of plant extracts confirmed that the methodology was robust and reliable.     

Cluster analysis as selection and dereplication tool for the identification of new natural compounds from large sample sets

Cluster analysis of gas-chromatographic (GC) data of ca. 500 bacterial isolates was used as an aid in detection and identification of new natural compounds. This approach reduces the number of GC/MS analysis (dereplication) and concomitantly improves the selection of samples with high probability to contain unknown natural products. Lipophilic bacterial extracts were derivatized and analyzed by GC under standardized conditions. A program was developed to convert chromatographic data into a two-dimensional matrix. Based on the results of hierarchical cluster analysis samples were selected for further investigation by GC/MS and NMR. This approach avoided unnecessary analysis of similar samples. By this method, the unusual oligoprenylsesquiterpenes 1 and 2 as well as new aromatic amides 7 and 8 were identified.     

Determination of sucrose in equine serum using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC/MS)

Mucosal integrity may be objectively assessed by determination of the absorption of exogenous substances such as sucrose. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC/MS) and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC/MS) have been reported for the accurate quantification of low concentrations of sucrose in serum. LC/MS offered the advantage of high sensitivity and mass selectivity without the need for extensive sample derivatization required for GC/MS methods. However, the high polarity and non-volatile nature of the sucrose molecule renders LC/MS techniques challenging. Previously published reports lacked sufficient detail to permit replication of methodology. Problems encountered with existing protocols included poor peak resolution and weak fragmentation of the parent molecule. This communication describes a LC/MS protocol developed to provide improved resolution and product detection.     

Catecholestrogens are MCF-7 cell estrogen receptor agonists

Catecholestrogens are important metabolites of estradiol and estrone in the human. Considerable interest has focused on the catecholestrogens 2-hydroxy- and 4-hydroxyestradiol since they bind to the estrogen receptor with an affinity in the range of estradiol. Using the MCF-7 cell line, we analysed the capacity of purified catecholestrogens to transform the estrogen receptor into its high affinity nuclear binding form and to effect receptor-dependent processes such as proliferation and expression of the progesterone receptor (PR). Incubations with 2-hydroxy- and 4-hydroxyestradiol at 10⁻⁸ M for 1 h resulted in tight nuclear binding of the estrogen receptor. During treatment of the cells with catecholestrogens we obtained a marked increase in proliferation rate of 36 and 76% for 2-hydroxy- and 4-hydroxyestradiol, respectively, relative to the inductive effect of estradiol (100%). The PR level, was slightly increased by treatment with 2-hydroxyestradiol (10%), whereas treatment with 4-hydroxyestradiol increased the PR level at 28%, compared to estradiol (100%). Form these results we conclude that the 2- and 4-hydroxylated derivatives of estradiol are active hormones and are able to initiate estrogen receptor mediated processes in MCF-7 cells.     

Assessment of 4-nitro-1,8-naphthalic anhydride reductase activity in homogenates of bakers' yeast by reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography

A simple reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatographic (RP-HPLC) method was developed for the simultaneous determination of yield and conversion ratio of 4-nitro-1,8-naphthalic anhydride to 4-amino-1,8-naphthalic anhydride following incubation with a crude bakers' yeast homogenate. The analytes were separated on a C18 column in gradient mode. The detection limit of 4-amino-1,8-naphthalic anhydride is 10ng/microl when using a 10microl sample injection volume. The nitroreductase activity in the homogenate system can be assessed during the bioconversion process. The method can be used for the simultaneous detection of 4-hydroxylamino-1,8-naphthalic anhydride, an intermediate with limited stability.     

Characterization and direct quantitation of ceramide molecular species from lipid extracts of biological samples by electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry

A rapid, simple, and reliable method has been developed for the characterization and quantitation of ceramide molecular species directly from chloroform extracts of biological samples by electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry (ESI/MS/MS). By exploiting the differential fragmentation patterns of deprotonated ceramide ions, individual 2-hydroxy and nonhydroxy ceramide molecular species were readily identified by ESI/MS/MS with the neutral loss of fragments of mass 256.2 and 327.3 which correspond to sphingosine derivatives. The ions generated from the neutral loss of 256.2 (i.e., [M - H - 256.2](-)) are unique for ceramides with N-acyl sphingosine with the 18-carbon homolog. However, the sensitivity for nonhydroxy ceramides in ESI/MS/MS with the neutral loss of 256.2 is approximately threefold higher than that for 2-hydroxy ceramides. The ions resulting from the neutral loss of 327.3 (i.e., [M - H - 327.3](-)) are specific for 2-hydroxy ceramides. Additionally, all ceramides including both 2-hydroxy and nonhydroxy forms can be confirmed and accurately quantitated by ESI/MS/MS with the neutral loss of 240.2 after correction for (13)C isotope factors. This methodology demonstrated a 1000-fold linear dynamic range and a detection limit at the subfemtomole range and was applied to directly quantitate ceramide molecular species in chloroform extracts of biological samples including brain tissues and cell cultures.     

Simultaneous determination of hypericin and hyperforin in human plasma and serum using liquid-liquid extraction,high-performance liquid chromatography and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry

A method for the simultaneous extraction of hypericin and hyperforin from a St. John's Wort extract, which is used in case of moderate depressions and skin injuries, from human plasma and serum by liquid-liquid extraction (LLE) with n-hexane-ethylacetate (70:30, w/w) was developed. A reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatographic (RP-HPLC) method with UV, fluorescence (FLD) and mass spectrometric (MS) detection using electrospray ionization (ESI) was used to identify and quantify hypericin and hyperforin in the extracts from blood samples. Linearity was obtained in the ranges 8.4-28.7 ng/ml (hypericin) and 21.6-242.6 ng/ml (hyperforin). Recoveries were between 32.2 and 35.6% for hypericin and 100.1 and 89.9% for hyperforin. Intra-day accuracy and precision for this method ranged between 3.2 and 4.3% and 2.6 and 2.8%, respectively. After validation of the LLE, the method was tested on real plasma samples which were obtained by ingestion of St. John's Wort extract capsules. Blood samples were taken 2, 4, and 6 h after ingestion. Finally, this method proved to be highly suitable for clinical and pharmacologically relevant studies.