Children’s Beliefs about Animal Minds (Child-BAM): Associations with Positive and Negative Child–Animal Interactions

Children and animals can have a great impact on each other’s lives, yet little is known about the underpinnings of these relationships. Children’s interactions with animals may be influenced by their belief in animal minds, that animals are sentient and experience thoughts and feelings. This study introduces a newly developed measure of children’s beliefs about animal minds (Child-BAM) and investigates associations between it and factors relating to positive and negative interactions with animals. Using a questionnaire-based survey of over 1,000 6- to 13-year-olds in the UK, the results show that Child-BAM was associated with higher attachment to pets (p < 0.001), compassion (p < 0.001), humane (p < 0.001) and caring behavior (p < 0.001) toward animals, emotional attachment to animals (p = 0.003), and positive attitudes toward animals (p < 0.001). Child-BAM was also associated with less acceptance of intentional animal cruelty (p = 0.001), unintentional animal cruelty (p = 0.007), and animal neglect (p = 0.01). There was a significant difference in Child-BAM between children with pets (p = 0.013), children who had a pet of their own (p = 0.016), and age group (p < 0.001). This study enhances our understanding of the psychological underpinnings of child–animal relationships and highlights the implications for animal welfare education and for preventing childhood animal cruelty.     

Exploring Children’s Perspectives on the Welfare Needs of Pet Animals

Children are increasingly viewed as important recipients of educational interventions to improve animal welfare, yet research examining their perspectives is lacking, particularly within the UK. Helping children to care appropriately for animals depends, not least, on an ability to understand the needs of different species and correctly identify cues given by the animal that indicate its welfare state. This study began to explore: (a) children’s perceptions of welfare needs, focusing on four common pet animals; (b) influences on the development of knowledge; (c) beliefs about whether or not (all) animals are sentient, and (d) their confidence in identifying when their own pets are in need. Fourteen focus groups were carried out with 53 children aged 7 to 13 years. Findings highlighted an affirmative response that animals have feelings (dogs especially), albeit with doubts about this applying universally. There was wide variation in children’s knowledge of welfare needs, even among owners of the animal in question. Conversely, some children lacked confidence in spite of the extensive knowledge they had developed through direct experience. An important finding was a perceived difficulty in identifying the needs of particular species or specific types of need in their own pets. Fitting well with a recent emphasis on “positive welfare,” children felt that many animals need demonstrative love and attention, especially cats and dogs. While there is clearly scope for educating children about common needs and cues that indicate animals’ welfare state, other areas pose a greater challenge. Emotional connection seems important in the development of extensive knowledge and concern for welfare. Accordingly, animals that do not possess the kind of behavioral repertoire that is easy to interpret or allows for a perceived sense of reciprocity are possibly at risk of negative welfare experiences.     

Belief in Animal Mind among Spanish Primary School Children

Beliefs concerning the mental experiences of nonhuman animals have been related to how people treat, see, and take care of nonhuman animals. Whereas this issue has been the subject of several studies on adults, few have been conducted with children. Taking advantage of a recently published scale, the Child-BAM questionnaire, we aimed to explore the beliefs in animal minds of Spanish primary school children. The study also considered the effects of a child's age, school year group, gender, and pet ownership on their beliefs in animal mind. The Child-BAM questionnaire, concerning the mental capabilities of eight different species (human, chimpanzee, dog, cow, otter, sparrow, frog, and fish), was distributed at a primary school sited in Cordoba, Spain. A total of 416 participants were included aged between 6 and 13 years. Each child provided scores for animals’ ability to have intelligence, experience pain, fear, happiness, and sadness, and total scores for the eight species were calculated. The results showed that children's beliefs about animal minds differed depending on the type of animal, and that children were more likely to believe in the emotional capacities of animals rather than their cognitive capabilities. Dogs achieved similar scores to humans regarding all capabilities, and higher than any other species, while the cow, fish, and frog generally scored the lowest. Age, school year group, and having a companion animal at home affected beliefs in animal minds, whereas gender had no effect. This study highlights cultural similarities in children's beliefs about animal minds and the potential importance of this variable for future research in child–animal interactions.     

Trends in sheltering and welfare at the Hawaiian Humane Society, Oahu, Hawaii

One of the major goals of an animal welfare organization is to reduce the number of homeless, nonhuman animals in a community. In Hawaii, the Hawaiian Humane Society has provided numerous animal welfare services to work toward this goal, such as offering sterilizations and microchipping at reduced rates and facilitating animal adoptions and education. In addition, the Leash Law and the Cat Identification Program have increased animal welfare through increasing the responsibilities of companion animal caregivers (owners). The goal of this research was to assess if temporal changes in animal sheltering have occurred in Hawaii. The study assessed this by analyzing historical data on dogs (Canis familiaris) and cats (Felis catus) admitted, returned to owner, sterilized, euthanized, and adopted from the Humane Societies of Oahu, Hawaii, from 1993 to 2008. The study also analyzed dog and cat admittance and Honolulu population growth from 1975 to 2008. Sterilizations and pets returned to owners have increased significantly, whereas admittance and euthanasia rates have decreased significantly. Thus, although these data cannot conclusively state that there are fewer homeless animals in Hawaii, the results provide positive indicators of reducing homeless pets, especially when coupled with an increase in both the human population of Honolulu County and dog ownership.     

Trends in Sheltering and Welfare at the Hawaiian Humane Society,Oahu, Hawaii

One of the major goals of an animal welfare organization is to reduce the number of homeless, nonhuman animals in a community. In Hawaii, the Hawaiian Humane Society has provided numerous animal welfare services to work toward this goal, such as offering sterilizations and microchipping at reduced rates and facilitating animal adoptions and education. In addition, the Leash Law and the Cat Identification Program have increased animal welfare through increasing the responsibilities of companion animal caregivers (owners). The goal of this research was to assess if temporal changes in animal sheltering have occurred in Hawaii. The study assessed this by analyzing historical data on dogs (Canis familiaris) and cats (Felis catus) admitted, returned to owner, sterilized, euthanized, and adopted from the Humane Societies of Oahu, Hawaii, from 1993 to 2008. The study also analyzed dog and cat admittance and Honolulu population growth from 1975 to 2008. Sterilizations and pets returned to owners have increased significantly, whereas admittance and euthanasia rates have decreased significantly. Thus, although these data cannot conclusively state that there are fewer homeless animals in Hawaii, the results provide positive indicators of reducing homeless pets, especially when coupled with an increase in both the human population of Honolulu County and dog ownership.     

Testing the Roles of Intergroup Anxiety and Inclusion of Animals in the Self as Mechanisms that Underpin the “Pets as Ambassadors” Effect

It has been suggested that pets provide the opportunity for humans to develop more positive attitudes and relationships toward a wider range of animal types—including toward non-pet animals—this is called the “pets as ambassadors” hypothesis. In this study, we build both on research conducted on human–animal relations and in social psychology to investigate the hypothesis, as well as two likely mechanisms involved in this effect: inter- group anxiety (toward animals) and inclusion of animals in the self. An online questionnaire was completed by 238 Canadian participants (M = 28.6 years old, SD = 8.53; 102 women). Using structural equation modeling (SEM), we tested a model whereby contact with pets predicted greater inclusion of ani- mals in the self and lower intergroup anxiety toward animals in general. In turn, these two psychological processes predicted more positive attitudes toward a broad range of animal types (e.g., wild/pest animals, animals used for human purposes) and animals in general. Finally, these positive attitudes toward animals predicted more pro-social behavioral intentions toward animals. The hypothesized model showed a good fit. Bootstrapping analyses further con- firmed the mediating roles of inclusion of animals in the self and intergroup anxiety toward animals in the associations between contact with pets and attitudes toward animals in general. The hypothesized model also presented a more satisfactory fit compared with an alternative model. Altogether, these findings underline the importance of contact with pets in fostering more positive human–animal relations and promoting animal welfare. These results also support the applicability of social psychological theories and principles in the realm of human–animal relations.     

Effects of Having Pets at Home on Children's Attitudes toward Popular and Unpopular Animals

ABSTRACT

Having pets at home provides various social, health, and educational benefits to children. The question of how keeping pets at home affects the attitudes of children toward wild animals still has not been answered, due to various methodological issues, such as ignorance of some attitude dimensions and/or questionnaires that include items focused on very different animals. We conducted three independent research surveys (using three independent samples) of Slovakian primary school children aged 10 to 15 years (n = 1297). These surveys focused on the effects of keeping pets on the attitudes of children towards, and knowledge of, three unpopular animals in Slovakia. These animals were pests (potato beetle) (Study 1), predators (wolf) (Study 2), and those that pose a threat of disease to humans (mouse) (Study 3). Each survey also included a popular animal (ladybird beetle, rabbit, and squirrel, respectively), which served as a “control”; these were compared by pair-wise statistics. Results consistently showed that children had better knowledge of, but less favorable attitudes towards, unpopular animals compared with popular ones. Having pets at home was associated with more positive attitudes to, and better knowledge of, both popular and unpopular animals. Girls were less favorably inclined than boys to animals that may pose a threat, danger, or disease to them. Implications for humane education are discussed, especially in terms of keeping pets, the link between knowledge and attitudes, and children's understanding of ecological adaptations.     

Wild Minds: What People Think about Animal Thinking

ABSTRACT

The question of how nonhuman animals think is pervasive in the scientific and popular media, yet there is an apparent lack of concordance between findings from research in animal cognition and how this information emerges in popular discourse. The present study investigated the way people conceive of animal thinking, in order to inform the development of an exhibit on animal minds that will address this issue and foster a deeper connection between people and animals. This two-part, sequential study of perceptions of animal thinking used qualitative interviews of visitors to the New York Hall of Science and Staten Island Zoo to develop a quantitative, online consumer survey of American museum visitors. The results show that American museum visitors vary in their perceptions of animal thinking, but appear to be open to new ideas about how animals might think. Participants' responses to the interviews revealed they could easily recognize survival strategies in wild animals, but had reservations about discussions of empathy, deception, and awareness. In addition, animals kept as pets or companion animals in Western culture were commonly perceived to have higher cognitive capacities for thinking than food or other domestic animals. Participants' responses to the online consumer survey appeared to focus on an overall concept of animal thinking, rather than different cognitive dimensions. Although participants were generally neutral in their responses, demographic analysis revealed participants who had dogs and/or cats, a college education, or watched nature shows were more likely to support the belief that animals can think. Participants who had children at home were less likely to support this belief. Further research is needed to determine how different kinds of thought processes are understood by general audiences and how demographic factors might influence perceptions of animal thinking.     

The Relationship between Empathy,Perception of Pain and Attitudes toward Pets among Norwegian Dog Owners

ABSTRACT

Anthropomorphism, attachment level, and belief in animal mind, as well as owners' level of empathy and attitudes toward their pets, are some of the factors that affect human–animal interactions. Owners' ability to identify painful conditions in their pets may have important consequences for the welfare of these animals. In addition to characterizing the typical Norwegian dog owner, the aim of this work was to study the relationship between empathy, attitudes, and perceived animal pain. A sample of 3,413 dog owners in Norway received an internet-based questionnaire (QuestBack?), to which1896 responded. The questionnaire included four parts: demographics, the Pet Attitude Scale (PAS), the Animal Empathy Scale (AES), and the Pain Assessment Instrument (PAI). For the PAI, participants were presented with 17 photos, showing dogs experiencing painful situations of varying degrees, and were asked to rate the level of pain they believed each animal was enduring, using a Visual Analogue Scale (VAS). Results showed that Norwegian dog owners had very high levels of animal-directed empathy and equally high levels of positive attitudes toward pets. There were differences based on gender, childhood pet keeping, income and education. Differences were also found rooted in owners' use of their dog, whether kept for companionship or hunting, as well as household size, an indication of human social relations. A strong, positive correlation (r = 0.58) was found between animal-directed empathy and positive attitudes toward pets. Empathy was found to be the best predictor of how people rated pain in dogs. The correlations were, however, moderate, indicating that other processes are also involved when observing animals in pain.     

Human-Directed Empathy and Attitudes Toward Animal Use: A Survey of Spanish Veterinary Students

Veterinary practitioners are thought of as guardians of animal health and wellbeing, and are considered important in the development of policies on animals. Measuring veterinary students’ attitudes toward animals and animal use is needed when assessing the effectiveness of education programs focused on animal welfare and ethics. The present study examined Spanish veterinary students’ attitudes toward different types of animal use, their human-directed empathy, and the relationship between these and various personal variables. The sample comprised 200 students who completed an online questionnaire. Attitudes toward animal use varied significantly, depending on the type of use in question. There was also a relationship between attitudes toward animal use, one component of human-directed empathy, “Empathic Concern,” and a number of personal variables such as gender, career choice, and contact with animal welfare organizations. Concern about the use of animals for research and animal management was lower in students who were in the later years of their studies. Reasons for this and the role of veterinary education are discussed.     

Children'S Attitudes About the Humane Treatment of Animals and Empathy: One-Year Follow up of a School-Based Intervention

ABSTRACT

This study assessed the maintenance of the effect of a year-long school-based humane education program on fourth grade children's attitudes toward animals. Generalization to human-directed empathy was also measured. Using a pretest-posttest (Year 1) follow-up (Year 2) design and ANCOVA, we found that the experimental group (children who experienced the program) humane attitudes mean was greater than the control group mean at initial posttesting and at the Year 2 follow up. At both Year 1 and Year 2 posttesting, the enhancement of attitudes toward animals generalized to human-directed empathy, especially when the quality of the children's relations with their pets was considered as a covariate. The results contribute to the growing literature on the significance of the relations between children and animals, and serve to encourage humane education efforts.     

Improving Upper Elementary Students’ Humane Attitudes and Prosocial Behaviors through an In-class Humane Education Program

Humane education is a long-standing field of education that endeavors to nurture kindness, compassion, and concern for nonhuman animals, people, and the environment. Despite its long history, however, few randomized control studies have evaluated its effectiveness to promote the development of relevant outcomes. The current study sought to address this dearth by investigating the effects of a humane education program on not only participating students’ attitudes, but also their behaviors. Classes of under-served, fourth-grade students in two major US cities were randomly assigned to participate in either a school-based humane education program or a chess club (the control group); all students participated in their respective activity during the same period once a week for 11 weeks. Data were collected on the attitudes (n = 236) and behaviors (n = 167) of participating students exactly one week before and exactly one week after these programs were conducted. Students self-reported their attitudes about the treatment of animals and the environment via the Intermediate Attitude Scale. Teachers rated each students’ prosocial and disruptive behaviors through sub-scales of the Teacher Observation of Classroom Adaptation– Checklist. Nested multilevel models of change found that the development of prosocial behaviors and self-reported attitudes significantly interacted with group assignment: Students who participated in the humane education program showed stronger growth in both of these outcomes compared with students in the control group. Changes in disruptive behaviors, how-ever, were not found to differ between groups. The results support the effectiveness of a humane education program to teach a relatively large and diverse group of upper elementary students to learn about animal welfare issues and to improve their prosocial behaviors. Effects appeared strongest on attitudes; behavioral effects were found to be largely limited to behaviors directly addressed by the humane education program.     

Selective battering of the family pet

Abstract

We examined the attitudes, perceptions and behaviors of both pet-abusing and non-pet-abusing perpetrators of family violence. Using data collected from victims residing at domestic violence shelters, results indicated that relative to their non-pet-abusing counterparts, pet-abusing batterers tend to less often show affection toward their pets, more often communicate with their pets only through commands and threats, more often view companion animals as property, are more likely to scapegoat their pets, and are more likely to have unrealistic expectations about their pets, more frequently punish their pets, and are more sensitive to stressful life events—particularly those perceived to be caused by the pet. We also queried respondents about batterers' past history with pets, the frequency and type of abuse inflicted on animals, the number of batterers who hunt, the frequency with which children witnessed abuse of the family pet, the impact of animal guardianship on decisions to remain with or return to the batterer, and where companion animals ended up when victims fled the batterer.     

Racial/Ethnic Differences in Effects of Welfare Policies on Early School Readiness and Later Achievement

This study examined whether the effects of employment-based policies on children's math and reading achievement differed for African American, Latino and Caucasian children of welfare receiving parents, and if so, why. Two kinds of employment policies were examined: education-first programs with an emphasis on adult education and job training; and work-first programs with an emphasis on immediate employment. With data from two- and five-year follow-ups in four experimental demonstrations in Grand Rapids, Michigan (N = 591) and Riverside County, California (N = 629), there was evidence of small positive effects of the Grand Rapids and Riverside education-first programs on African American and Latino children's school readiness and math scores. An opposite pattern of effects emerged among Caucasian children. In one of the two sites, we found that Latino parents' higher levels of goals for pursuing their own education appeared to explain why their children benefited to a greater degree from the program than their Caucasian counterparts.     

Opinions of UK Rescue Shelter and Rehoming Center Workers on the Problems Facing Their Industry

Animal shelters exist worldwide to care for and rehome unwanted or straying pets. Previous studies have examined why owners breed unwanted animals, or relinquish their pets to shelters. However, the views of shelter workers, who receive and care for these animals, have previously been largely unexplored. The aim of this study was to investigate the perceptions of animal shelter workers on the problems facing their industry. A sampling frame was constructed, consisting of every identified shelter in the UK, and a postal questionnaire sent to each. This included two open questions, soliciting respondents’ views on their biggest problems, and inviting further comments. A total of 661 respondents replied to at least one question. Thematic analysis on the free text content was carried out, and basic and global themes identified. Respondents’ main concerns centered on a mismatch between the continuous demand for their services and their limited resources, which has worsened during the recent financial crisis. Respondents perceived a need for increased public awareness of the commitment involved in keeping a pet, and of controlling breeding by neutering. Points of intervention, such as education programs, were suggested. Coordinating efforts with others, including local authorities, landlords, and housing associations, and a potential role for veterinary professionals working in shelter medicine were all explored by respondents. Rehoming organizations play an important role in the management of pet overpopulation, and the views and beliefs of their workers form an important contribution to the dialogue surrounding this issue. Consideration of these perspectives may suggest alternative routes to address underlying causes and management of pet overpopulation.     

Abstracts

Abstract

Exposure to pets and wildlife can help children develop positive attitudes toward animals, which can foster the development of empathy and ecological stewardship. However, geographical, logistical and economic restrictions limit opportunities for many youth to interact directly with live animals. Thus, educational interventions that utilize imitation animal artifacts rather than live animals, and which are effective in helping children develop an understanding of animals, present an important resource for educators. In the current study, the impact of a curriculum that employs imitation animal artifacts on children's perceptions of their relationships to animals was assessed. Third grade children's (n = 96) perceptions of their relationships to animals were analyzed by means of a drawing assessment tool. An analytic scoring rubric was used to assess three features of the drawings: Interactivity, Affect, and Realism. The combination of these elements was defined as the construct Self–Animal Perception. Change in Self–Animal Perception was assessed over time using repeated measures ANOVA. The curriculum intervention resulted in significant improvement in Self–Animal Perception scores relative to controls. The Self–Animal Perception construct and the drawing assessment tool utilized for measuring children's perceived relationships to animals are discussed.     

Justice For All? Children’s Moral Reasoning about the Welfare and Rights of Endangered Species

This study reports children’s developing moral concerns for endangered animals. Three questions were addressed: 1) Do children conceive of not harming an endangered animal as a moral obligation? 2) Do children use biocentric (nature-centered) moral reasoning? and 3) Does a developmental shift in biocentrism occur between the ages of 7and 10-years-old? Fifty-two urban children (gender balanced and evenly divided between two ages groups: 7 and 10-year-olds) from the Pacific Northwest were interviewed regarding their understanding of, and beliefs and values about, endangered animals, their moral obligatory concerns, and their conceptions of animal rights. Many questions focused on a single species—the gray wolf— as it presents a canonical example of a local, familiar, charismatic endangered animal. The semi-structured interview methodology and the coding procedures followed well-established methods in social-cognitive psychology. Results were that the 7 and 10-year-olds valued endangered animals, extended moral obligations to gray wolves, and endorsed animal rights. Quantitative analysis of the content responses revealed a typology of seven rights that children spontaneously offered when asked which rights animals have: food, companionship, reproduction, habitat, play/exercise, welfare, and autonomy. The 10-year-olds were significantly more likely to endorse autonomy rights than the 7-year-olds. The findings reveal the highest rates of biocentrism observed in young children, and the 10-year-olds endorsed biocentrism to a greater degree than the 7-year-olds. Children drew on their understanding of human moral concerns to extend these concerns to the animal. Sentiency and biological needs are salient features that allow children to take the perspective of the animal in ways that build upon and diverge from their own experiences. These findings provide a comparative baseline for extending our understanding of biocentrism across cultures, animal kinds, and in human–wildlife conflict scenarios.     

Abstracts

Abstract

This study examines the effects of gender in conjunction with age, pet ownership, and sibling status on children's ideas about domestic animal young (puppies and kittens) and how they are nurtured. A theoretical model accounting for gender differences in the development of nurturance in children is presented. The model argues that children may develop knowledge about nurture from many sources, including animals, and that gender differences are most likely when behavior (versus knowledge) and baby care (versus animal care) are assessed. Ideas about animal young and animal caregiving of their young were individually assessed in structured interviews with 43 preschoolers and 42 second graders. Boys' ideas increased with age, while that of girls did not. Having a younger sibling was associated with more knowledge in boys but not in girls. Children with pets had more ideas about how adult animals cared for their young than did non-pet owners.     

Attitudes to Animal use in Children

ABSTRACT

Six hundred and fifty children, aged between 11 and 15 years, from an urban and a rural area, completed a questionnaire in which they provided information regarding their attitudes towards 13 issues involving the use of animals. Information regarding the pets the children owned was also obtained. The child's sex (male, female), age (11–15 years), and residence area (urban, rural) were related to pet ownership, and, including pet ownership, to attitudes towards the use of animals. Over 90% of the sample owned a pet, with the dog being the most common. More pets were owned by children from rural than urban areas. With regards to the animal-use issues, all the children discriminated between animal uses that lead to death of or injury to the animal and those regarded as exploitation. Children disagreed more with uses leading to the animal's death or injury. Females expressed more disagreement than males, and children from urban areas expressed more disagreement than children from rural settings. The study revealed pet ownership to be high among school children. This was matched by a high concern over activities leading to the animal's death or injury, indicating that strong attitudes to animal use are formed early during development. Early education may be important in shaping these attitudes.