拟南芥AtJ3通过核质转运调控植物质膜H~+-ATPase活性与ABA响应

拟南芥AtJ3(Arabidopsis thaliana Dna J homolog 3)为一蛋白分子伴侣,在植物体内可通过与PKS5(SOS2-like protein kinase 5)蛋白激酶形成复合物来抑制PKS5的活性;同时AtJ3-PKS5复合物可对质膜上H~+-ATPase质子转运活性进行正向调节,并参与对外源ABA的响应。为揭示AtJ3-PKS5复合物参与质膜H~+-ATPase活性调节及对外源ABA响应中的作用,本研究以拟南芥AtJ3、PKS5不同突变体为材料,在盐及ABA共同处理下对AtJ3-PKS5复合物的功能及作用机制进行了探讨。结果显示,在2种因素共同处理下,AtJ3-PKS5复合物可同时对处理因素进行响应。即AtJ3-PKS5复合物可对质膜上H~+-ATPase质子转运活性进行调节,并使细胞内p H值发生变化,同时还可诱导ABI5下游ABA响应基因的表达;外源ABA可引起AtJ3从细胞核向细胞质的转运,从而增强了AtJ3对H~+-ATPase活性的调节。说明AtJ3-PKS5复合物在对H~+-ATPase活性调节及对外源ABA响应的交互代谢途径中起着关键调节子的作用。     

Protein Phosphatases 2C Regulate the Activation of the Snf1-Related Kinase OST1 by Abscisic Acid in Arabidopsis

The plant hormone abscisic acid (ABA) orchestrates plant adaptive responses to a variety of stresses, including drought. This signaling pathway is regulated by reversible protein phosphorylation, and genetic evidence demonstrated that several related protein phosphatases 2C (PP2Cs) are negative regulators of this pathway in Arabidopsis thaliana. Here, we developed a protein phosphatase profiling strategy to define the substrate preferences of the HAB1 PP2C implicated in ABA signaling and used these data to screen for putative substrates. Interestingly, this analysis designated the activation loop of the ABA activated kinase OST1, related to Snf1 and AMPK kinases, as a putative HAB1 substrate. We experimentally demonstrated that HAB1 dephosphorylates and deactivates OST1 in vitro. Furthermore, HAB1 and the related PP2Cs ABI1 and ABI2 interact with OST1 in vivo, and mutations in the corresponding genes strongly affect OST1 activation by ABA. Our results provide evidence that PP2Cs are directly implicated in the ABA-dependent activation of OST1 and further suggest that the activation mechanism of AMPK/Snf1-related kinases through the inhibition of regulating PP2Cs is conserved from plants to human.     

ABA-activated SnRK2 protein kinase is required for dehydration stress signaling in Arabidopsis

Protein phosphorylation has pivotal roles in ABA and osmotic stress signaling in higher plants. Two protein phosphatase genes, ABI1 and ABI2, are known to regulate these signaling pathways in Arabidopsis: The identity of ABA-activated protein kinases required for the ABA signaling, however, remains to be elucidated. Here we demonstrate that two protein kinases, p44 and p42, were activated by ABA in Arabidopsis T87 cultured cells, and at least one protein kinase, p44, was activated not only by ABA but also by low humidity in Arabidopsis plants. Analysis of T-DNA knockout mutants and biochemical analysis using a specific antibody revealed that the p44 is encoded by a SnRK2-type protein kinase gene, SRK2E. The srk2e mutation resulted in a wilty phenotype mainly due to loss of stomatal closure in response to a rapid humidity decrease. ABA-inducible gene expression of rd22 and rd29B was suppressed in srk2e. These results show that SRK2E plays an important role in ABA signaling in response to water stress.     

A calcium sensor and its interacting protein kinase are global regulators of abscisic acid signaling in Arabidopsis

The phytohormone abscisic acid (ABA) triggers an oscillation in the cytosolic Ca(2+) concentration, which is then perceived by unknown Ca(2+) binding proteins to initiate a series of signaling cascades that control many physiological processes, including adaptation to environmental stress. We report here that a Ca(2+) binding protein, SCaBP5, and its interacting protein kinase, PKS3, function as global regulators of ABA responses. Arabidopsis mutants with silenced SCaBP5 or PKS3 are hypersensitive to ABA in seed germination, seedling growth, stomatal closing, and gene expression. PKS3 physically interacts with the 2C-type protein phosphatase ABI2 (ABA-insensitive 2) and to a lesser extent with the homologous ABI1 (ABA-insensitive 1) protein. Thus, SCaBP5 and PKS3 are part of a calcium-responsive negative regulatory loop controlling ABA sensitivity.     

Expression,activation, and biochemical properties of a novel Arabidopsis protein kinase

An Arabidopsis SOS2 (salt overly sensitive 2)-like protein kinase gene, PKS6, was expressed in leaves, stems, and siliques, but not detectable in roots of adult plants; its expression in young seedlings was up-regulated by abscisic acid. To determine the biochemical properties of the PKS6 protein, we expressed the PKS6 coding sequence as a glutathione S-transferase fusion protein in Escherichia coli. The bacterially expressed glutathione S-transferase-PKS6 fusion protein was inactive in substrate phosphorylation. We have constructed constitutively active forms of PKS6 by either a deletion of its putative auto-inhibitory FISL motif (i.e. PKS6deltaF) or a substitution of threonine-178 with aspartic acid within the putative activation loop. We found that PKS6deltaF exhibited a strong preference for Mn2+ over Mg2+ as a divalent cation cofactor for kinase activity. PKS6DeltaF displayed substrate specificity against three different peptide substrates and had an optimal pH of approximately 7.5 and temperature optimum of 30 degrees C. The apparent Km values for ATP and the preferred peptide substrate p3 of PKS6deltaF were determined to be 1.7 and 28.5 microM, respectively. These results provide significant insights into the regulation and biochemical properties of the protein kinase PKS6. In addition, the constitutively active, gain-of-function kinase mutants will be invaluable for future determination of the in planta function of PKS6.     

Diverse stress signals activate the C1 subgroup MAP kinases of Arabidopsis

Mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) cascades play an important role in mediating stress responses in plants. In Arabidopsis, 20 MAPKs have been identified and classified into four major groups (A-D). Little is known about the role of group C MAPKs. We have studied the activation of Arabidopsis subgroup C1 MAPKs (AtMPK1/AtMPK2) in response to mechanical injury. An increase in their kinase activity was detected in response to wounding that was blocked by cycloheximide. Jasmonic acid (JA) activated AtMPK1/AtMPK2 in the absence of wounding. Wound and JA-induction of AtMPK1/2 kinase activity was not prevented in the JA-insensitive coi1 mutant. Other stress signals, such as abscisic acid (ABA) and hydrogen peroxide, activated AtMPK1/2. This report shows for the first time that regulation of AtMPK1/2 kinase activity in Arabidopsis might be under the control of signals involved in different kinds of stress.     

Arabidopsis Raf‐like kinases act as positive regulators of subclass III SnRK2 in osmostress signaling

Given their sessile nature, land plants must use various mechanisms to manage dehydration under water‐deficit conditions. Osmostress‐induced activation of the SNF1‐related protein kinase 2 (SnRK2) family elicits physiological responses such as stomatal closure to protect plants during drought conditions. With the plant hormone ABA receptors [PYR (pyrabactin resistance)/PYL (pyrabactin resistance‐like)/RCAR (regulatory component of ABA receptors) proteins] and group A protein phosphatases, subclass III SnRK2 also constitutes a core signaling module for ABA, and osmostress triggers ABA accumulation. How SnRK2 is activated through ABA has been clarified, although its activation through osmostress remains unclear. Here, we show that Arabidopsis ABA and abiotic stress‐responsive Raf‐like kinases (AtARKs) of the B3 clade of the mitogen‐activated kinase kinase kinase (MAPKKK) family are crucial in SnRK2‐mediated osmostress responses. Disruption of AtARKs in Arabidopsis results in increased water loss from detached leaves because of impaired stomatal closure in response to osmostress. Our findings obtained in vitro and in planta have shown that AtARKs interact physically with SRK2E, a core factor for stomatal closure in response to drought. Furthermore, we show that AtARK phosphorylates S171 and S175 in the activation loop of SRK2E in vitro and that Atark mutants have defects in osmostress‐induced subclass III SnRK2 activity. Our findings identify a specific type of B3‐MAPKKKs as upstream kinases of subclass III SnRK2 in Arabidopsis. Taken together with earlier reports that ARK is an upstream kinase of SnRK2 in moss, an existing member of a basal land plant lineage, we propose that ARK/SnRK2 module is evolutionarily conserved across 400 million years of land plant evolution for conferring protection against drought.     

拟南芥PKS5激酶点突变体外表达与磷酸化测试

PKS5(protein kinase SOS2-like 5)虽为拟南芥(Arabidopsis thaliana)中介导植物响应外界高p H的蛋白激酶,但其关键功能结构域尚未被确定。该研究用PCR对PKS5不同位置点突变形式进行克隆,并在原核系统中进行表达,得到PKS5不同的点突变蛋白;使用激酶通用底物MBP(myelin basic protein)及PKS5体内特异底物AHA2(A.thaliana isoform of the PM H+-ATPase,拟南芥质膜质子泵等位形式之一)对PKS5点突变蛋白磷酸化活性进行了测试。结果表明:点突变PKS5-2失去了激酶活性,PKS5-4、PKS5-5、PKS5-9自磷酸化与MBP磷酸化活性与PKS5相比无差异;而与PKS5相比,点突变PKS5-6和PKS5-7自磷酸化及对AHA2的磷酸化活性升高,且PKS5-7活性高于PKS5-6。说明PKS5特定位置点突变改变PKS5的自磷酸化及底物磷酸化活性水平,不同位置的点突变对其磷酸化活性的影响存在差异。研究结果可为确定PKS5功能结构域及体内作用机理提供依据。     

The regulatory domain of SRK2E/OST1/SnRK2.6 interacts with ABI1 and integrates abscisic acid (ABA) and osmotic stress signals controlling stomatal closure in Arabidopsis

ABI1 and ABI2 encode PP2C-type protein phosphatases and are thought to negatively regulate many aspects of abscisic acid (ABA) signaling, including stomatal closure in Arabidopsis. In contrast, SRK2E/OST1/SnRK2.6 encodes an Arabidopsis SnRK2 protein kinase and acts as a positive regulator in the ABA-induced stomatal closure. SRK2E/OST1 is activated by osmotic stress as well as by ABA, but the independence of the two activation processes has not yet been determined. Additionally, interaction between SRK2E/OST1 and PP2C-type phosphatases (ABI1 and ABI2) is not understood. In the present study, we demonstrated that the abi1-1 mutation, but not the abi2-1 mutation, strongly inhibited ABA-dependent SRK2E/OST1 activation. In contrast, osmotic stress activated SRK2E/OST1 even in abi1-1 and aba2-1 plants. The C-terminal regulatory domain of SRK2E/OST1 was required for its activation by both ABA and osmotic stress in Arabidopsis. The C-terminal domain was functionally divided into Domains I and II. Domain II was required only for the ABA-dependent activation of SRK2E/OST1, whereas Domain I was responsible for the ABA-independent activation. Full-length SRK2E/OST1 completely complemented the wilty phenotype of the srk2e mutant, but SRK2E/OST1 lacking Domain II did not. Domain II interacted with the ABI1 protein in a yeast two-hybrid assay. Our results suggested that the direct interaction between SRK2E/OST1 and ABI1 through Domain II plays a critical role in the control of stomatal closure.     

Identification of features regulating OST1 kinase activity and OST1 function in guard cells

The phytohormone abscisic acid (ABA) mediates drought responses in plants and, in particular, triggers stomatal closure. Snf1-related kinase 2 (SnRK2) proteins from several plant species have been implicated in ABA-signaling pathways. In Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) guard cells, OPEN STOMATA 1 (OST1)/SRK2E/SnRK2-6 is a critical positive regulator of ABA signal transduction. A better understanding of the mechanisms responsible for SnRK2 protein kinase activation is thus a major goal toward understanding ABA signal transduction. Here, we report successful purification of OST1 produced in Escherichia coli: The protein is active and autophosphorylates. Using mass spectrometry, we identified five target residues of autophosphorylation in recombinant OST1. Sequence analysis delineates two conserved boxes located in the carboxy-terminal moiety of OST1 after the catalytic domain: the SnRK2-specific box (glutamine-303 to proline-318) and the ABA-specific box (leucine-333 to methionine-362). Site-directed mutagenesis and serial deletions reveal that serine (Ser)-175 in the activation loop and the SnRK2-specific box are critical for the activity of recombinant OST1 kinase. Targeted expression of variants of OST1 kinase in guard cells uncovered additional features that are critical for OST1 function in ABA signaling, although not required for OST1 kinase activity: Ser-7, Ser-18, and Ser-29 and the ABA-specific box. Ser-7, Ser-18, Ser-29, and Ser-43 represent putative targets for regulatory phosphorylation and the ABA-specific box may be a target for the binding of signaling partners in guard cells.     

Phytochrome Kinase Substrate 4 is phosphorylated by the phototropin 1 photoreceptor

Phototropism allows plants to redirect their growth towards the light to optimize photosynthesis under reduced light conditions. Phototropin 1 (phot1) is the primary low blue light-sensing receptor triggering phototropism in Arabidopsis. Light-induced autophosphorylation of phot1, an AGC-class protein kinase, constitutes an essential step for phototropism. However, apart from the receptor itself, substrates of phot1 kinase activity are less clearly established. Phototropism is also influenced by the cryptochromes and phytochromes photoreceptors that do not provide directional information but influence the process through incompletely characterized mechanisms. Here, we show that Phytochrome Kinase Substrate 4 (PKS4), a known element of phot1 signalling, is a substrate of phot1 kinase activity in vitro that is phosphorylated in a phot1-dependent manner in vivo. PKS4 phosphorylation is transient and regulated by a type 2-protein phosphatase. Moreover, phytochromes repress the accumulation of the light-induced phosphorylated form of PKS4 showing a convergence of photoreceptor activity on this signalling element. Our physiological analyses suggest that PKS4 phosphorylation is not essential for phototropism but is part of a negative feedback mechanism.     

Selection of substrate recognition sequence of protein kinase with ferric chelation affinity chromatography

Protein kinase substrate phage (PKS phage) was constructed by fusing the substrate recognition consensus sequence of cAMP-dependent protein kinase (cAPK) with bacteriophage minor coat protein g3p and by dis-playing it on the surface of filamentous bacteriophage fd. Phosphorylation in vitro by cAPK showed a unique labelled band of approximately 60 ku, which was consistent with the molecular weight of the PKS-g3p fusion protein. Some weakly phosphorylated bands for both PKS phage and wild-type phage were also observed. Phage display random 15-mer peptide library phosphorylated by cAPK was selected with ferric (Fe3 ) chelalion affinity resin. After 4 rounds of screening, phage clones were picked out to determine the displayed peptide sequences by DNA sequencing. The results showed that 5 of 14 sequenced phages displayed the cAPK recognition sequence motif (R)RXS/T. Their in vitro phosphorylation analyses revealed the specific labelled bands corresponding to the positive PKS phages with and without the typ     

Arabidopsis mitogen-activated protein kinase MPK12 interacts with the MAPK phosphatase IBR5 and regulates auxin signaling

Mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) phosphatases are important negative regulators in the MAPK signaling pathways responsible for many essential processes in plants, including development, stress management and hormonal responses. A mutation in INDOLE-3-BUTYRIC ACID-RESPONSE5 ( IBR5 ), which is predicted to encode a dual-specificity MAPK phosphatase, was previously reported to confer reduced sensitivity to auxin and ABA in Arabidopsis roots. To further characterize IBR5, and to understand how it might help integrate MAPK cascades with hormone signaling, we searched for IBR5-interacting MAPKs. Yeast two-hybrid assays, in vitro binding assays and in vivo protein co-immunoprecipitation studies demonstrated that MPK12 and IBR5 are physically coupled. The C-terminus of MPK12 appears to be essential for its interaction with IBR5, and in vitro dephosphorylation and immunocomplex kinase assays indicated that activated MPK12 is efficiently dephosphorylated and inactivated by IBR5. MPK12 and IBR5 mRNAs are both widely expressed across Arabidopsis tissues, and at the subcellular level each protein is predominantly localized in the nucleus. In transgenic plants with reduced expression of the MPK12 gene, root growth is hypersensitive to exogenous auxins, but shows normal ABA sensitivity. MPK12 suppression in an ibr5 background partially complements the ibr5 auxin-insensitivity phenotype. Our results demonstrate that IBR5 is a bona fide MAPK phosphatase, and suggest that MPK12 is both a physiological substrate of IBR5 and a novel negative regulator of auxin signaling in Arabidopsis.     

Identification and characterization of an ABA‐activated MAP kinase cascade in Arabidopsis thaliana

Abscisic acid (ABA) is a major phytohormone involved in important stress‐related and developmental plant processes. Recent phosphoproteomic analyses revealed a large set of ABA‐triggered phosphoproteins as putative mitogen‐activated protein kinase (MAPK) targets, although the evidence for MAPKs involved in ABA signalling is still scarce. Here, we identified and reconstituted in vivo a complete ABA‐activated MAPK cascade, composed of the MAP3Ks MAP3K17/18, the MAP2K MKK3 and the four C group MAPKs MPK1/2/7/14. In planta, we show that ABA activation of MPK7 is blocked in mkk3‐1 and map3k17mapk3k18 plants. Coherently, both mutants exhibit hypersensitivity to ABA and altered expression of a set of ABA‐dependent genes. A genetic analysis further reveals that this MAPK cascade is activated by the PYR/PYL/RCAR‐SnRK2‐PP2C ABA core signalling module through protein synthesis of the MAP3Ks, unveiling an atypical mechanism for MAPK activation in eukaryotes. Our work provides evidence for a role of an ABA‐induced MAPK pathway in plant stress signalling.