Levator veli palatini muscle and eustachian tube function

Thirty previously unoperated patients with submucous cleft palate, occult submucous cleft palate, and unilateral congenital paralysis of the levator veli palatini muscle were examined. All patients were subjected to a comprehensive otoscopic, endoscopic, audiologic, and tympanometric evaluation. A correlation was made between levator veli palatini muscle anomalies, eustachian tube orifice anomalies, and middle ear ventilation and disorders. Normal middle ear ventilation was found in 23 patients. Negative middle ear pressure that consequently normalized following treatment of coexisting sinusitis was found in 3 patients. Only in 4 patients was chronic middle ear disease found. In one of them, middle ear effusion disappeared following successful treatment of sinusitis. Our conclusion is that the levator veli palatini muscle has no significant function in the opening mechanism of the eustachian tube and must be considered as a velopharyngeal valve muscle only.     

Anatomy of musculus levator veli palatini in the 15-week human fetus

The morphology of musculus levator veli palatini in the 15-week fetus was analyzed using 30-micrometer subserial sections. The sample included 26 specimens, of which 9 each were sectioned coronally and sagittally while 8 were sectioned in the transverse plane. At this stage of development m. levator veli palatini takes a general attachment to the precursor of the petrous part of the temporal bone, and, in some cases, auxiliary attachments to the auditory tube complex were also observed. At its origin, the muscle is located anterior to the tube. It then runs medially, passing beneath the auditory tube prior to entering the velum. As it nears the region of the lateral pharyngeal wall, a small fascicle trails posteriorly and inferiorly to the main muscle mass and occasionally runs into the upper margin of m. constrictor pharyngis superior. The levator muscle is more localized within the velum at this stage of development than it has been reported to be in the adult, being confined here to the central third of the soft palate. Most of the fibers of the muscle appear to form a sling within the central 20% of the velum, although some were seen to take attachment to loose connective tissue and the palatine raphe. Upon its entry into the velum, m. levator veli palatini is intersected vertically by bundles of both mm. palatoglossus and palatopharyngeus.     

弥猴单侧软腭肌肉对针式电极刺激的反应

目的建立针电极口内刺激猴软腭肌肉诱发腭咽闭合运动的模式,取得软腭肌肉运动的有效刺激数值,为软腭肌肉功能重建奠定基础。方法通过解剖成年猕猴软腭的五组肌肉,确定其体表位置;利用实验动物用腭部肌肉电极定位刺激器及针式电极对软腭肌肉进行有效刺激;结合鼻咽纤维镜、头颅侧位X片及软腭造影技术观察、记录肌肉收缩及腭咽闭合动作。结果在猕猴口内定位目标肌肉进行针电极刺激可诱发肌肉收缩。刺激电压为3 V、刺激频率为20 Hz时均能诱发单侧软腭肌肉的有效收缩;单侧腭帆提肌在刺激电压为5 V、20 Hz时可发生腭咽闭合动作。咽腭肌、舌腭肌在刺激电压5 V、刺激频率100 Hz时发生软腭下降动作。腭帆张肌仅发生收缩,而未发生腭咽闭合。应用鼻咽纤维镜和X线成像技术配合能记录腭咽闭合动作。结论弥猴可作为研究软腭肌肉运动模式的实验动物。应用电极刺激软腭肌肉,可初步建立腭咽闭合的动作模式。     

Morphology of the soft palate of the vervet monkey (Cercopithecus pygerythrus)

The heads of 31 vervet monkeys were dissected to investigate the morphology of the soft palate. This extended posteriorly from the hard palate and was delineated laterally by a fold raised by the pterygomandibular raphé. The palatoglossal arch was more prominent than the palatopharyngeal arch and four types of uvulae were seen. These were conical, bifid, trifid, and triangular. Twenty five to forty raised papillae were present on the anterior half of the oral surface. Within the soft palate, the bulk of tissue consisted of glands with a lesser amount of striated muscle. The muscles consisted of the tensor veli palatini, levator veli palatini, palatoglossus, palatopharyngeus, and uvular muscles which differed slightly in their attachments to similar muscles in man. The innervation of the tensor veli palatini muscle was a branch of the mandibular nerve but no nerves could be traced to the other muscles. The soft palate of the vervet monkey is sufficiently similar to that in man to be of practical use in experimental surgery aimed at correcting human soft palate abnormalities.     

Definition of the T-lymphocyte inducer of suppression in primates using a monoclonal antibody

Since some of the conserved antigens between man and phylogenetically lower primate species may be more immunodominant on lymphocytes of the lower primate species, we reasoned that immunization of mice with lymphocytes from lower primates might prove a useful strategy for developing monoclonal antibodies which recognize functionally important structures on both human and nonhuman primate lymphocytes. In employing this approach for the development of monoclonal antibodies, we have developed the antibody anti-2H4 which recognizes a structure on both T on non-T mononuclear cells of a wide array of primate species. 2H4+ rhesus monkey T lymphocytes exhibited a greater proliferative response to lectin and alloantigenic stimulation than 2H4- cells, suggesting that anti-2H4 might separate primate T lymphocytes into functionally distinct cell populations. In fact, helper activity for antibody production by rhesus monkey B lymphocytes in response to pokeweed mitogen (PWM) resided in the 2H4- T-cell population. Furthermore, the 2H4+ T-lymphocyte population activated the suppressor function of T8+ rhesus monkey cells. The fact that the surface antigen which defines this T-cell subset is widely conserved in nonhuman primates suggests that anti-2H4 recognizes a functionally important structure.     

Eustachian tube cartilage and medial movement of lateral pharyngeal wall on phonation

Several authors have demonstrated the importance of medial movement of the lateral pharyngeal wall in velopharyngeal closure upon phonation. However, it remains controversial what muscle is responsible for lateral pharyngeal wall movement and where is the main site of this movement. The purpose of this study was to address the above two unanswered questions. In 22 subjects (12 normal volunteers, 10 patients with cleft palate), lateral pharyngeal wall movement upon phonation was evaluated by using rapid magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Before rapid MRI, their lateral pharyngeal wall movements were classified into three groups: the poor, moderate, and good, according to the findings of nasopharyngoscopy. Inward displacement of the eustachian tube cartilages upon phonation, which was quantified as distance ratio in the transverse plane of MR images, was compared with nasopharyngoscopic findings. In addition, the level of lateral pharyngeal wall movement was observed in the plane 5 mm lateral to the mid-sagittal plane of MR images. Inward displacement of the eustachian tube cartilage in the transverse plane of MR images was coincident with medial movement of lateral pharyngeal wall observed by nasopharyngoscopy in all 22 subjects. By using one-way analysis of variance, a statistically significant correlation was found between nasopharyngoscopic classification and distance ratio. The sagittal plane of MR images revealed that the main site of movement occurred at the level of the hard palate and above. It is concluded that medial movement of the lateral pharyngeal wall consists of inward displacement of the eustachian tube cartilage, which is caused by contraction of the levator veli palatini muscle, and that the primary site of this movement is at the level of the hard palate and above, where the eustachian tube, but not the superior constrictor muscle, exists.     

Surgical anatomy of the levator veli palatini: a previously undescribed tendinous insertion of the anterolateral fibers

The purpose of this study was to describe the previously unreported tendinous insertion of the anterolateral fibers of the levator veli palatini (levator) and discuss possible implications for levator function and cleft palate repair. The velopharyngeal anatomy in normal adult cadavers was studied, with histologic confirmation of anatomical findings. These findings were compared with a more limited study of levator anatomy in cleft palates at the time of intraoperative muscle dissection. Just before entering the velum, the levator divides into two parts. The smaller bundle of muscle fibers (anterolateral part) runs anteriorly, close to the lateral pharyngeal wall, and inserts into the palatine aponeurosis through a number of fine tendons. The main part of the muscle runs medially into the velum, where it fans out and forms the levator sling with the contralateral levator. The possible function of the anterolateral part of the levator is discussed. Inadequate release of the tendinous insertions at the time of palate repair may tether the levator anteriorly and compromise muscle retropositioning or may result in splitting of the levator, so that only part of the levator is retropositioned.     

Differences among primates in defence against infection: sensitivity of polymorphonuclear leukocytes to fMet-Leu-Phe

The sensitivity of polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMN) to N-formyl-methionyl-leucyl-phenylalanine (fMet-Leu-Phe) for chemotaxis and for lysosomal enzyme release was examined using the PMN of four primate species, human (H. sapiens), chimpanzee (P. troglodytes), rhesus monkey (M. mulatta), and cotton-headed tamarin (S. (O) oedipus). The 50 per cent effective concentrations (EC50) of fMet-Leu-Phe for chemotaxis were 2.5 X 10(-9) M in human, 10(-9) M in chimpanzee, 8 X 10(-8) M in rhesus monkey, and 3.3 X 10(-6) M in tamarin. The EC50 values of fMet-Leu-Phe for myeloperoxidase (MPO) release were 10(-8) M in human, 4 X 10(-8) M in chimpanzee, 4 X 10(-8) M in rhesus monkey, and 10(-6) M in tamarin and those for beta-glucuronidase release were 4 X 10(-9) M, 6.4 X 10(-8) M, 1.8 X 10(-7) M, and 1.6 X 10(-6) M, respectively. Thus, the sensitivity to fMet-Leu-Phe for chemotaxis was in the order: chimpanzee congruent to human greater than rhesus monkey greater than tamarin, and that for the release of lysosomal enzymes, MPO and beta-glucuronidase, was in the order: human greater than chimpanzee greater than rhesus monkey greater than tamarin. These results appear to indicate that the sensitivity to fMet-Leu-Phe increases in the order of evolution of primates toward the human, and suggest that the sensitivity of PMN in the defence function against infection also increases in the same order.     

Morphological changes of an inflammatory myopathy in rhesus monkeys with simian acquired immunodeficiency syndrome

Eleven of 25 rhesus monkeys which died of simian acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (SAIDS) caused by infection with a type D retrovirus related to Mason-Pfizer monkey virus showed evidence of muscle weakness and atrophy and had elevated levels of muscle enzymes. Biopsies of affected muscle studied with enzyme histochemistry showed the characteristic features of polymyositis. Inflammatory cells consisting of lymphocytes, macrophages, and large vacuolated bizarre-shaped cells of undetermined type were surrounding or invading muscle fibers and were present in the perivascular spaces and endomysia septa. Within the perivascular infiltrates, lymphocytes were abundant but very few macrophages were present. Other myopathic features including profound proliferation of fibrous tissue, necrosis, and phagocytosis of muscle fibers were noted to a variable degree. The retrovirus was isolated from affected muscles. The clinical and historical features of polymyositis in rhesus monkeys with SAIDS are very similar to those of human polymyositis. The polymyositis in SAIDS induced by a type D retrovirus related to Mason-Pfizer monkey virus is an excellent primate model to study the mechanism and morphological changes of viral-induced muscle damage.     

Infection of Human B Lymphocytes with Lymphocryptoviruses Related to Epstein-Barr Virus

Lymphocryptoviruses (LCVs) naturally infecting Old World nonhuman primates are closely related to the human LCV, Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), and share similar genome organization and sequences, biologic properties, epidemiology, and pathogenesis. LCVs can efficiently immortalize B lymphocytes from the autologous species, but the ability of a given LCV to immortalize B cells from other Old World primate species is variable. We found that LCV from rhesus monkeys did not immortalize human B cells, and EBV did not immortalize rhesus monkey B cells. In this study, baboon LCV could not immortalize human peripheral blood B cells but could readily immortalize rhesus monkey B cells. Thus, efficient LCV-induced B-cell immortalization across distant Old World primate species appears to be restricted by a species-specific block. To further characterize this species restriction, we first cloned the rhesus monkey LCV major membrane glycoprotein and discovered that the binding epitope for the EBV receptor, CD21, was highly conserved. Stable infections of human B cells with recombinant amplicons packaged in rhesus monkey or baboon LCV envelopes were also consistent with a species-restricted block occurring after virus binding and penetration. Transient infections of human B cells with simian LCV resulted in latent LCV EBNA-2 gene expression and activation of cell CD23 gene expression. EBV-immortalized human B cells could be coinfected with baboon LCV, and the simian virus persisted and replicated in human B cells. Thus, several lines of evidence indicate that the species restriction for efficient LCV-induced B-cell immortalization occurs beyond virus binding and penetration. This has important implications for the study of LCV infection in Old World primate models and for human xenotransplantation where simian LCVs may be inadvertently introduced into humans.     

Molecular cloning of three nonhuman primate follicle stimulating hormone beta-subunit cDNAs

The follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) beta-subunit cDNAs were cloned and sequenced for an old world primate, the rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta), and two New World primates, the common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus) and pygmy marmoset (Cebuella pygmaea). The cDNA and predicted amino acid sequences of the rhesus monkey FSH beta-subunit were related most closely to the human FSH beta-subunit (> 96% identity). The common and pygmy marmosets have identical FSH beta-subunit cDNAs, whereas the marmoset FSH beta-subunit diverges from the rhesus and human molecules with less than 93% identity. These results have significance for the implementation of assisted reproductive technologies in the nonhuman primate as well as the evolution of genes encoding reproductive hormones.     

一例恒河猴颊囊鳞状细胞癌的病理学观察

通过对一例恒河猴颊囊肿块临床症状表现、剖检肉眼观察及光学显微镜组织病理形态变化观察,发现该病猴颊囊病灶组织病变具有与人鳞状细胞癌相似的典型特征,确诊为颊囊鳞状细胞癌,可为判断非人灵长类动物肿瘤性疾病提供一定的病理诊断依据。     

HTRA3 expression in non-pregnant rhesus monkey ovary and endometrium,and at the maternal-fetal interface during early pregnancy

Background  

HTRA3 is a recently identified member of the mammalian serine protease family HTRA (high temperature requirement factor A). In both the rodent and the human HTRA3 is transcribed into two mRNA species (long and short) through alternative splicing. We have previously shown that HTRA3 is expressed in the mature rat ovary and may be involved in folliculogenesis and luteinisation. HTRA3 is also upregulated during mouse and human placental development. The current study investigated whether HTRA3 is also localised in the primate ovary (rhesus monkey n = 7). In addition, we examined the non-pregnant rhesus monkey endometrium (n = 4) and maternal-fetal interface during early pregnancy (n = 5) to further investigate expression of HTRA3 in primate endometrium and placentation.     

Alpha1,4-fucosyltransferase activity: a significant function in the primate lineage has appeared twice independently

In the animal kingdom the enzymes that catalyze the formation of alpha1,4 fucosylated-glycoconjugates are known only in apes (chimpanzee) and humans. They are encoded by FUT3 and FUT5 genes, two members of the Lewis FUT5-FUT3-FUT6 gene cluster, which had originated by duplications of an alpha3 ancestor gene. In order to explore more precisely the emergence of the alpha1,4 fucosylation, new Lewis-like fucosyltransferase genes were studied in species belonging to the three main primate groups. Two Lewis-like genes were found in brown and ruffed lemurs (prosimians) as well as in squirrel monkey (New World monkey). In the latter, one gene encodes an enzyme which transfers fucose only in alpha1,3 linkage, whereas the other is a pseudogene. Three genes homologous to chimpanzee and human Lewis genes were identified in rhesus macaque (Old World monkey), and only one encodes an alpha3/4-fucosyltransferase. The ability of new primate enzymes to transfer fucose in alpha1,3 or alpha1,3/4 linkage confirms that the amino acid R or W in the acceptor-binding motif "HH(R/W)(D/E)" is required for the type 1/type 2 acceptor specificity. Expression of rhesus macaque genes proved that fucose transfer in alpha1,4 linkage is not restricted to the hominoid family and may be extended to other Old World monkeys. Moreover, the presence of only one enzyme supporting the alpha1,4 fucosylation in rhesus macaque versus two enzymes in hominoids suggests that this function occurred twice independently during primate evolution.     

The untranslated regions of β-globin mRNA evolve at a functional rate in higher primates

We have sequenced the 3′ and 5′ untranslated regions of β-globin mRNAs from cebus monkey, rhesus monkey and chimpanzee. A comparison with the corresponding human sequences reveals that the rate of sequence divergence among the higher primates is the same in the 3′ and 5′ noncoding regions and that this rate is several times lower than the rate for silent substitutions in the coding regions. In addition, the rate of sequence divergence in the 3′ untranslated region of the primate β-globin mRNA is several times lower than the rate calculated for this region from other comparisons. The low rate of sequence divergence in the noncoding 3′ end of the primate β-globin mRNAs may indicate a specialized and significant function for this region in the higher primates.     

Evidence of similar organization of the chromosomes carrying the major histocompatibility complex in man and other primates

The chromosome localization and gene synteny of the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) of the great apes and rhesus monkey were investigated using somatic cell hybrids. The presence of the MHC antigens was determined either with a microadsorption technique employing primate alloantisera, or with a radioimmune assay. The enzymes phosphoglucomutase 3 (PGM3), glyoxalase 1 (GLO1), mitochondrial superoxide dismutase (SOD2), and soluble maleic enzyme (ME1) were assayed in those hybrids where electrophoretic separations could be achieved. A chromosome homologous to the human No. 6 was found in the chimpanzee, gorilla, orangutan and rhesus monkey, and its genomic organization is similar to that of man.     

Restriction of feline immunodeficiency virus by Ref1, Lv1, and primate TRIM5alpha proteins

The Ref1 and Lv1 postentry restrictions in human and monkey cells have been analyzed for lentiviruses in the primate and ungulate groups, but no data exist for the third (feline) group. We compared feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) to other restricted (human immunodeficiency virus type 1 [HIV-1], equine infectious anemia virus [EIAV]) and unrestricted (NB-tropic murine leukemia virus [NB-MLV]) retroviruses across wide ranges of viral inputs in cells from multiple primate and nonprimate species. We also characterized restrictions conferred to permissive feline and canine cells engineered to express rhesus and human TRIM5alpha proteins and performed RNA interference (RNAi) against endogenous TRIM5alpha. We find that expression of rhesus or human TRIM5alpha proteins in feline cells restricts FIV, impairing pseudotyped vector transduction and viral replication, but rhesus TRIM5alpha is more restricting than human TRIM5alpha. Notably, however, canine cells did not support restriction by human TRIM5alpha and supported minimal restriction by rhesus TRIM5alpha, suggesting that these proteins may not function autonomously or that a canine factor interferes. Stable RNAi knockdown of endogenous rhesus TRIM5alpha resulted in marked increases in FIV and HIV-1 infectivities while having no effect on NB-MLV. A panel of nonprimate cell lines varied widely in susceptibility to lentiviral vector transduction, but normalized FIV and HIV-1 vectors varied concordantly. In contrast, in human and monkey cells, relative restriction of FIV compared to HIV-1 varied from none to substantial, with the greatest relative infectivity deficit for FIV vectors observed in human T-cell lines. Endogenous and introduced TRIM5alpha restrictions of FIV could be titrated by coinfections with FIV, HIV-1, or EIAV virus-like particles. Arsenic trioxide had complex and TRIM5alpha-independent enhancing effects on lentiviral but not NB-MLV infection. Implications for human gene therapy are discussed.     

Late DNA replication in rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta) chromosomes

A study of the pattern of late DNA replication in rhesus monkey chromosomes showed evident similarities with man. This must be a consequence of the evolutionary conservation of replication patterns in primate chromosomes, as it has been demonstrated in the great apes, in Cebus, and man. However, the pattern of late replication of the allocyclic X chromosome in lymphocytes of female rhesus monkey was identical with the fibroblast pattern in man, and with the pattern found in only 5 to 20% of human lymphocytes.