Coexistence in a sea urchin guild and its implications to coral reef diversity and degradation

Summary Coexistence between the coral reef inhabiting sea urchins Echinometra mathaei, Diadema savignyi and D. setosum was studied by comparing differences in body morphology, distribution, diet, susceptibility to predators, intra- and interspecific competition and settlement. The three species share similar diets and broad within-habitat distributions but differ in their microspatial preferences. E. mathaei is the smallest species, has the highest settlement rates and lives territorially within small burrows or crevices. D. savignyi is intermediate in size and lives frequently in intermediate size crevices or occassionally in social groups. D. setosum is the largest species and occassionally lives in large crevices or more frequently in social groups. Both Diadema have similarily low settlement rates. Competition experiments showed that E. mathaei was consistently the top competitor for crevice space. Diadema species shared larger crevices but competition occured within smaller crevices and was frequently won by the largest individual, regardless of species. D. savignyi may be the top competitor for crevice space between the Diadema species due to a reduced spine length/test size ratio which gives it a larger test for the same crevice size requirement. Predation rates were high for E. mathaei and low for both Diadema species. Coexistence is mediated by predation on the competitive-dominant while predation coupled with different body morphologies and behavior allows spatial resource partitioning of the reef's variable topography. Consequently, the three variables of predation, topographic complexity and differing body shapes create the observed species diversity. A reduction in predators due to stochastic fluctuations or from fishing pressure can lead to E. mathaei population increases and competitive exclusion of Diadema.     

Competition between herbivourous fishes and urchins on Caribbean reefs

Summary When the common sea urchin Diadema antillarum was removed from a 50 m strip of reef in St. Thomas, US Virgin Islands, cover of upright algae and the grazing rates and densities of herbivorous parrotfish and surgeonfish increased significantly within 11–16 weeks when compared to immediately adjacent control areas. Sixteen months after removal, Diadema had recovered to 70% of original density, abundance of upright algae no longer differed between removal and control areas, and the abundance and grazing activity of herbivorous fish in the removal was approaching equivalence with control areas. On a patch reef in St. Croix that had been cleared of Diadema 10–11 years earlier (Ogden et al. 1973b), urchins had recovered to only 50–60% of original density. This reef still showed significantly higher rates of grazing by fish and a significantly greater density of parrotfish and surgeonfish than a nearby control reef where Diadema densities had not been altered. These results indicate that high Diadema densities (7–12/m² for this study) may suppress the densities of herbivorous fish on Caribbean reefs.     

Group size of feeding stream case-bearing caddisfly grazers and resource abundance

Several herbivorous insects are known to benefit from feeding in groups; however, little is known about (1) the resource conditions under which herbivorous insects perform group feeding and (2) the optimum population size to get any benefits by group feeding, for example, in terms of growth performance. To test the hypotheses that the benefits from group feeding change with resource level and population size, we performed field investigations and an enclosure experiment using the grazer caddisfly larva Micrasema quadriloba. The field investigations revealed aggregated distributions of larvae (indicator of aggregation, I_δ=4.1±1.55, aggregated density: 12.7±5.3 individuals per 3.1×3.1 cm² (mean±1 SD)) when periphyton was abundant on stream cobbles and random distributions (I_δ=1.0±0.11) when periphyton was scarce. In the enclosure experiment, the relative growth rate (RGR) of the larvae at each population size showed different tendencies at high and low periphyton abundance levels; RGR with abundant periphyton had a convex curve with a peak at intermediate population size, whereas RGR with scarce periphyton decreased linearly with increasing population size. The benefits from group feeding thus changed with resource level; larvae obtained high growth performance by group feeding behavior only when the resource was sufficiently abundant. The present study revealed not only that the optimum group size of larvae increased their growth performance, but also that this optimum group size occurred frequently in the field. We also discuss the mechanisms and benefits of group feeding by case-bearing caddisfly grazers.     

Effects of Microcystis aeruginosa on interference competition between Daphnia pulex and Keratella cochlearis

Laboratory experiments tested the hypothesis that a toxic strain of Microcystis aeruginosa decreases the ability of Daphnia pulex to interfere with Keratella cochlearis. To test a variety of conditions, juvenile and adult Daphnia were exposed to the cyanobacterium for different time periods prior to, and during the experiments. Adult Daphnia not only suppressed rotifers over successive two-day intervals, but also had a significant impact within a 24-hour period. However, the presence of Microcystis (5 × 105 cells ml^–1) decreased the Daphnia effect in both experiments. Although juvenile Daphnia also significantly suppressed Keratella population growth, the presence of Microcystis (10⁵ and 5 × 10⁵ cells ml^–1) caused a significant reduction in daphniid body size and decreased the ability of both nonacclimated and acclimated daphniids to suppress rotifers. Keratella inhalation and mortality are positively correlated with filtering rates and body size of Daphnia. Therefore, the feeding rates and size structure of a Daphnia population will determine its potential to interfere with vulnerable rotifers. In all experiments the presence of Microcystis significantly decreased the ability of Daphnia to interfere with this rotifer despite the fact that Keratella was also inhibited. In the field this effect might be augmented if Microcystis colonies are more easily ingested by cladocerans than by the rotifers.     

Effect of two microalgae concentrations on body size and egg size of the rotifer <Emphasis Type="Italic">Brachionus calyciflorus</Emphasis>

The rotifer, Brachionus calyciflorus, was grown with two algae species (Chlorella sp. and Scenedesmus obliquus) at different concentrations (0.1, 1 and 10 × 10⁶ cells ml⁻¹). The body size (lorica biovolume) of individual rotifer and their egg size were measured when the populations were roughly in the exponential phase of population growth. The body size of the rotifers differed significantly (P < 0.05) among the two algae species used, however this effect was not observed for egg size. The body size of rotifers fed on higher densities of Chlorella sp. (10 × 10⁶ cells ml⁻¹) was significantly larger than for those fed on lower and medium densities (0.1 and 1 × 10⁶ cells ml⁻¹). Body size and egg size of rotifers fed with different amounts of Scenedesmus did not differ significantly. The egg size was significantly larger at higher food level of Chlorella. A significantly positive correlation was observed between the adult rotifer body size and their egg size.     

The adaptive significance of population differentiation in offspring size of the least killifish,Heterandria formosa

We tested the hypothesis that density‐dependent competition influences the evolution of offspring size. We studied two populations of the least killifish (Heterandria formosa) that differ dramatically in population density; these populations are genetically differentiated for offspring size, and females from both populations produce larger offspring when they experience higher social densities. To look at the influences of population of origin and relative body size on competitive ability, we held females from the high‐density population at two different densities to create large and small offspring with the same genetic background. We measured the competitive ability of those offspring in mesocosms that contained either pure or mixed population treatments at either high or low density. High density increased competition, which was most evident in greatly reduced individual growth rates. Larger offspring from the high‐density population significantly delayed the onset of maturity of fish from the low‐density population. From our results, we infer that competitive conditions in nature have contributed to the evolution of genetically based interpopulation differences in offspring size as well as plasticity in offspring size in response to conspecific density.     

The effect of bacteria on interspecific relationships between the euryhaline rotifer Brachionus rotundiformis and the harpacticoid copepod Tigriopus japonicus

Inconsistent results have been obtained on the population growth of Brachionus rotundiformis and Tigriopus japonicus, when results from single-species and two-species mixed cultures are compared. Bacteria growth was not regulated in these experiments, which could be the cause for this. In order to test this possibility, we conducted similar experiments under axenic and synxenic (with presence of one species of bacteria) conditions. The population growth of B. rotundiformis was suppressed by the presence of T. japonicus in axenic cultures. T. japonicus could not persist in axenic cultures, but its population increased when grown in synxenic cultures. T. japonicus used RT bacteria strain as a food source, while these bacteria were toxic to B. rotundiformis. These results suggest that bacteria can modify the interspecific relationship between B. rotundiformis and T. japonicus.     

Synergistic effects of food shortage and an insecticide on a <Emphasis Type="Italic">Daphnia</Emphasis> population: rapid decline of food density at the peak of population density reduces tolerance to the chemical and induces a large population crash

Laboratory populations of cloned Daphnia magna were exposed at different population phases (growing phase, density peak, stable phase) to the insecticide carbaryl at 15 μg 1⁻¹, which was harmful to juveniles but not to adults, and their population dynamics were analyzed. The population declined most at the density peak, when not only juveniles but also many adult individuals died. To analyze the factors affecting population vulnerability to carbaryl, acute toxicity tests were conducted using Daphnia individuals of different body sizes under different food conditions. The test revealed that daphnid sensitivity to carbaryl increased greatly when food density was changed from a high food level to a low level. This food condition, of low availability, might be the condition to which the Daphnia populations were exposed at their density peak. The synergism of the negative impacts of anthropogenic and natural stresses such as insecticides and food shortage may control aquatic populations.     

埋深和播种密度对豚草种子出苗及幼苗生长的影响

豚草是一种全球性的恶性入侵杂草,给我国生物多样性及经济发展造成了巨大威胁。为研究豚草种子出苗和幼苗生长的影响因素,采用盆栽实验分析了种子大小（L、M、S）与埋深（2、4 cm和6 cm）或播种密度（2、4粒/盆和8粒/盆）对豚草（Ambrosia artemisiifolia）种子的出苗和幼苗生长的影响。研究结果表明,埋深对豚草种子出苗的影响高于播种密度及种子大小的影响,较浅的埋深有利于豚草种子出苗;出苗率在不同播种密度下均具有较高水平,达到67.9%-100%,这种高出苗率是豚草在不同生境成功定植的原因之一。豚草的幼苗生长受埋深或播种密度的影响大于种子大小的影响,且小种子更易受埋深或播种密度的影响。种子大小显著影响豚草幼苗的株高和基径（P<0.05）,总体上较大种子的株高和基径高于小种子,此外更小的种子会将生物量更多的分配给根以促进幼苗的生长。幼苗的株高和基径在较浅的埋深下更高,而豚草幼苗的单株生物量、单株地上和地下生物量随埋深的增加而增加。播种密度的增加会加剧豚草幼苗之间对水分、营养、光照等资源的竞争,导致其单株地上、地下及总生物量显著降低（P<0.05）。研究发现豚草在浅埋深、低密度生境中更容易入侵成功,因此可以通过对土壤进行深翻,采取替代控制,种植竞争能力强的本地植物等手段有效管理和防治豚草。     

闽楠叶形态与叶脉网络性状关系对城市生长环境的响应

植物叶形态与叶脉网络功能性状的协同变异与权衡关系,对深入理解植物叶脉网络功能性状对环境变异的生态适应,以及预测植物物种生活习性对城市化过程的响应具有重要意义。闽楠作为珍贵的常绿阔叶树种,正在城市绿化中逐步推广。针对不同生长环境中（行道与植物园混交林）的闽楠,开展了叶形态与叶脉网络功能性状关系对城市生长环境的响应研究。研究结果表明：闽楠叶性状值基本满足正态分布,各性状变异系数保持在10%-20%之间,群体内性状变异较为丰富,单因素方差分析表明两种环境对叶形态性状的影响比叶脉网络系统的影响更明显;两种生长环境下闽楠叶形态性状组与叶脉网络功能性状组都具有极显著相关性,行道和植物园混交林典型性相关系数分别为0.804和0.795,叶形态性状与叶脉直径呈显著正相关,形态性状、叶脉直径与初级脉密度呈显著负相关;闽楠在响应城市生长环境的过程中呈现出相应的经济权衡机制,行道环境中闽楠以较大的初级脉密度和较小叶面积来确保水分获取和光合之间的平衡,植物园闽楠则采用较低初级叶脉密度、较高叶面积和叶脉直径的叶形态和叶脉网络构建模式。在选择闽楠作为城市绿化树种时,可将叶片形态性状组与叶脉网络功能性状组的协同变化和权衡关系作为选种依据,以提高闽楠在城市环境中的成活率和适应性。     

Forest fragmentation and plant reproductive success: a case study in four perennial herbs

We assessed the effects of habitat fragmentation on reproductive success in natural populations of four forest herbs with differing life-history traits and whose distribution patterns appeared to be negatively affected by decreased habitat size and/or increased isolation: Carex sylvatica, Galium odoratum, Sanicula europaea and Veronica montana. Our aims were to test (1) whether habitat size and isolation are positively correlated with population size and isolation, respectively, (2) whether plant reproductive success, a major component of plant fitness, is reduced in small and/or isolated populations when also accounting for differences in habitat quality (edaphic conditions, light intensity) and the effects of plant size, and (3) whether species with different life histories are affected differently. There were significant positive relationships between habitat and population size and between habitat and population isolation in some, but not all of the species. We mostly found no negative effects of small population size or isolation on reproduction. However, reproductive success was reduced in small populations of Sanicula, and this effect was independent of differences in plant size and environmental conditions. The reduced fecundity in small populations may be a consequence of the Allee-effect, a possible mechanism being pollen limitation. Furthermore, the proportion of flowering ramets was reduced in small and isolated populations of Galium, which may have been caused by changes in population structure. Lastly, we found some evidence for largely outcrossing, non-clonal species to be more sensitive to reductions in population size, at least in terms of their reproductive success.     

不同密度猪毛菜形态结构性状及生物量分配策略的异速关系

植物的生长特性随环境条件的变化具有可塑性,而不同的环境因素对植物可塑性的影响也不尽相同。利用异速分析的方法,通过模拟退化草地恢复过程中猪毛菜（Salsola collina）的不同种群密度（16、44、100、400株/m²）,研究其形态结构性状及生物量分配策略的异速关系在种群密度间的差异。结果表明,种群密度增大能抑制猪毛菜的生长,而且对猪毛菜的株高、根长、一级分枝数、二级分枝数、三级分枝数以及总分枝长均产生了极显著的影响,表明种群密度的变化使得植物的高生长和侧向生长发生了显著变化。种群密度的变化也引起了植物生物量的变化,其中植物根、茎、叶间的生物关系是一种表观可塑性,植物的生长策略未发生改变,只是植物个体大小发生改变引起的生物量分配的变化。植物株高、总分枝长、一级分枝数及繁殖分配的变化,是由种群密度变化引起的,植物的适应策略发生了改变,是真正的可塑性。种群密度改变了植物的繁殖分配策略,而未改变植物叶的分配策略,说明当环境发生变化时,植物调整了其繁殖策略以适应环境因素的改变,以保证种群的生存繁衍。     

Larval host plant affects fitness consequences of egg size variation in the seed beetle Stator limbatus

Egg size variation often has large effects on the fitness of progeny in insects. However, many studies have been unable to detect an advantage of developing from large eggs, suggesting that egg size variation has implications for offspring performance only under adverse conditions, such as during larval competition, periods of starvation, desiccation, or when larvae feed on low-quality resources. We test this hypothesis by examining the consequences of egg size variation for survivorship and development of a seed-feeding insect, Stator limbatus, on both a low-quality (Cercidium floridum) and a high-quality (Acacia greggii) host plant. Our results are consistent with the hypothesis. S. limbatus larval performance was affected by egg size only when developing on the poor-quality host (C. floridum); larvae from large eggs survived better on C. floridum than those from small eggs, while there was no evidence of an effect of egg size on progeny development time, body weight, or survivorship when larvae developed on A. greggii. These results indicate intense selection for large eggs within C. floridum-associated populations, but not in A. greggii-associated populations, so that egg size is predicted to vary among populations associated with different hosts. Our results also support this hypothesis; females from a C. floridum-associated population (Scottsdale) laid larger eggs than females from an A. greggii-associated population (Black Canyon City).     

Growing through predation windows: effects on body size development in young fish

The degree to which growth in early life stages of animals is regulated via density‐dependent feedbacks through prey resources is much debated. Here we have studied the influence of size‐ and density‐dependent mechanisms as well as size‐selective predation pressure by cannibalistic perch Perca fluviatilis on growth patterns of young‐of‐the‐year (YOY) perch covering several lakes and years. We found no influence of initial size or temperature on early body size development of perch. In contrast, there was a negative relationship between reproductive output and the length of YOY perch at five weeks of age. However, rather than an effect of density‐dependent growth mediated via depressed resources the relationship was driven by positive size‐selective cannibalism removing large individuals. Hence, given a positive correlation between the density of victims and predation pressure by cannibals, size‐dependent interactions between cannibals and their victims may wrongly be interpreted as patterns of density‐dependent growth in the victim cohort. Overall, our results support the view that density‐dependent resource‐limitation in early life stages is rare. Still, patterns of density‐dependent growth may emerge, but from variation in size‐selective predation pressure rather than density as such. This illustrates the importance of taking overall population demography and predatory interactions into account when studying growth patterns among recruiting individuals.     

Neighborhood interactions influencing tree population dynamics in nonpyrogenous boreal forest in northern Finland

Open-canopy moss-rich woodlands dominated by Picea abies and Betula pubescens in northern Finland may undergo cyclic development with reciprocal replacement of the tree species due to the positive feedbacks on soil conditions. Although relations to the abiotic environment are well understood, intra- and interspecific interactions during development of sparse boreal forests have received less attention. We studied tree regeneration, growth and survival with respect to size and density of neighboring trees in four stands representing roughly four stages of the Picea–Betula forest cycle. We conducted spatial analysis (Ripley’s K-function) of mapped locations of live and dead stems to reconstruct the distribution of stems prior to mortality, and to infer possible causes of tree population decline. The prevalence of standing dead stems enabled us to test if mortality was associated with density and size of neighboring trees. Logistic regression was used to test for relationships between tree survival and local crowding indices. We also examined spatial autocorrelations of individual size characteristics to determine the mode and spatial extent of tree interactions. Picea abies had reduced recruitment in open areas occupied by mosses and dwarf-shrubs, and preferentially regenerated near B. pubescens, whereas B. pubescens formed small clumps (and occasionally these consisted entirely of stems from a single tree) that showed local repulsion from large P. abies trees. Size of neighboring trees was the primary determinant of individual growth and survival, whereas neighborhood density per se had only a weak effect. Picea abies had negatively correlated sizes among close neighbors (0–4 m radius) indicating that dominant trees suppress their smaller neighbors. Negative autocorrelations prevailed at the transition stages where the patches of smaller trees were concentrated around evenly spaced large trees. Tree sizes became spatially independent at the mature phase. We hypothesize that both low light and soil nutrient availability causes the P. abies population decline. Dominant trees in this high latitude forest have large light depletion zones and shallow root system to promote strong above- and below-ground competition with younger trees. Higher mortality rates within canopy patches were not compensated for by recruitment in gaps, causing P. abies population to decline steadily.     

Effect of competition on the demography of planktonic cladocerans — Daphnia and Diaphanosoma

Summary Isolated and mixed continuous cultures of Daphnia hyalina and Diaphanosoma brachyurum in lake water were maintained under laboratory conditions to elucidate demographic effects of competition. Population dynamics curves were obtained. Interspecific competition was revealed by the decrease in the average density of animals in the mixed versus isolated cultures and by the extinction of one species in the presence of the other. Within the first 50 days either Diaphanosoma (4 cases) or Daphnia (1 case) was the superior competitor, depending on the initial conditions. Further cultivation resulted in the extinction of Diaphanosoma in the mixed cultures. There were no statistically significant differences between the maximum rates of population increase (r _m ) in Daphnia and Diaphanosoma at the concentration of edible algae about 2·10⁵ m³ml^-1(0.293 and 0.286 days^-1, respectively). Time lags for density-dependent parameters of the populations were evaluated by means of rank cross-correlations. Regardless of the species identity the time lags of fecundity, birth rate, and the rate of population growth were significantly higher in the superior competitor. The initial conditions of culturing affected the time lags which in their turn influenced the outcome of the interaction. Enhanced competitive ability due to the maximized time lags in Daphnia was not associated with the loss of population stability. Conversely, it brought about destabilization of Diaphanosoma populations which seemed to be the ultimate cause of its extinction observed in the end of the experiment. Time lag of the population growth rate was well predicted based on the half-sum of time lags in birth and death rates (r²=0.80, P<0.001). Daphnia responded to competition with a sharp shortening of the time lags of fecundity, birth rate, and the population growth rate. It increased clutch size and showed inverse relationship between the fecundity time lag and average fecundity even though it was strongly suppressed by Diaphanosoma. The competitive ability was not related to the percentage of adults in the populations. In contrast to the current belief the major result of interspecific competition in the experiment was not a decrease in the rate of population growth but was a reduction in population time lags.     

Predation of the sea urchin Diadema antillarum Philippi on living coral

Summary On the coral reefs of Curaçao and Bonaire (Netherlands Antilles) the sea urchin Diadema antillarum is a major coral predator. In areas with high coral cover, up to 8.2% of the Diadema population (with a density of 8.5 animals/m²) was feeding on living coral surfaces at night. Acropora species are the most heavily attacked corals.     

金佛山方竹对亮叶水青冈幼树种群数量结构的影响

为探索贵州省宽阔水保护区亮叶水青冈(Fagus lucida)种群的更新维持机制,采用样方法研究金佛山方竹(Chimonobambusa utilis)对亮叶水青冈种群数量结构的影响。结果表明,较高的金佛山方竹密度降低了亮叶水青冈种群数量,亮叶水青冈株数随径级和高度级增加都呈现递减趋势;金佛山方竹密度增加有利于亮叶水青冈小径级向中径级个体的转化,而方竹密度减少则有利于中径级向大径级个体的转化;金佛山方竹密度增大降低了亮叶水青冈种群平均胸径,但增加了平均高度。这表明金佛山方竹能够影响亮叶水青冈个体数量和形态建成,亮叶水青冈通过降低胸径和增加高度来适应竹丛环境。     

Effect of Temperature on Longevity and Productivity in Drosophila Ananassae: Evidence for Adaptive Plasticity and Trade-Off Between Longevity and Productivity

The genetic response of body size to temperature in the laboratory provides an interesting example of phenotypic plasticity. We found that females of Drosophila ananassae reared to adulthood at 18°C showed significant increase in body weight as compared to females reared at 25°C. At a given temperature, early productivity and lifetime productivity were the highest when the rearing and test temperature were the same. The effect of test temperature was highly significant for total productivity and early productivity. The interaction between test temperature and development temperature was also highly significant. Effect of development temperature was not significant. The females reared at 18°C showed greater body weight but their productivity was not significantly higher than smaller females reared at 25°C. Thus, the usually close relationship between size and fecundity is lost when the size change is due to rearing temperature. These findings provide evidence for adaptive plasticity in D. ananassae. We also found a negative correlation (trade-off) between longevity and productivity, the first report of such a trade-off between longevity and productivity in D. ananassae.     

The island syndrome in isolated populations of a tropical forest rodent

I examined population traits of eight isolated populations of a tropical forest rodent (Proechimys semispinosus, the Central American spiny rat) for 1 year in central Panamá. Populations were sampled by monthly live-trapping, and seven traits (density, population growth rate, adult survival, reproductive effort, age structure, sex ratio, and body mass) were compared among populations. I also compared results with published data from nearby mainland populations. Each isolated population showed characteristics typical of island populations when compared with mainland populations, including higher and more stable densities, reduced reproductive effort, and greater body mass. Densities were the highest yet recorded for this species, and biomass of these island populations was among the highest of any tropical rodent yet studied. Population traits varied not only between island and mainland populations but also among island populations. P. semispinosus have traits that allow individuals in a population to rapidly respond to temporal changes in habitat quality or resource abundance. These traits include a high reproductive rate and an ability to adjust reproductive effort to changes in density. P. semispinosus are therefore able to quickly reach and maintain high densities under favorable conditions, thereby allowing close tracking of temporally and spatially varying resources. This flexibility is predicted for habitat generalists and presumably promotes abundance and persistence in temporally and spatially heterogeneous environments. P. semispinosus, often the most abundant and widely distributed species of rodent in forests throughout their geographic range, therefore have traits that are similar to those of generalist rodents in temperate forests.