Intrauterine oxytocin system

At term, uterine epithelial cells express oxytocin (OT) as well as the OT receptor (OTR). Like other epithelial cells, uterine epithelial cells are polarized and sort secretory and membrane components to the apical or the basolateral cell surface. We have studied the subcellular localization of OT-like immunoreactivity (OT-IR) and OTR-IR in rat uterine epithelium by immuno-gold labelling of ultrathin frozen sections. Our observations indicate that OT and OTR are both distributed preferentially to the apical surface of rat uterine epithelial cells. OT-IR showed a 6-fold apical versus basolateral preference and was localized in apical secretory vesicles, suggesting that uterine OT is released by apical exocytosis. OTR-IR was localized to the apical surface with a 9-fold apical versus basolateral preference and was found specifically in association with apical microvilli. The present findings represent the first example of a G protein-coupled receptor that is preferentially localized on the microvillar compartment and support the concept of an autocrine uterine OT system at the apical side of the uterine epithelium.     

Non-peptide oxytocin agonists

A library of compounds targeted to the vasopressin/oxytocin family of receptors was screened for activity at a cloned human oxytocin receptor using a reporter gene assay. Potency and selectivity were optimised to afford compound 39, EC50 = 33 nM. This series of compounds represents the first disclosed, non-peptide, low molecular weight agonists of the hormone oxytocin (OT).     

Endogenous oxytocin excites phasic contraction of gallbladder in rabbits through oxytocin receptor

These experiments were performed to study the effect of oxytocin (OT) and it's specific receptor on gallbladder motility in rabbits. The fasted New Zealand white rabbits (2.0-2.5 kg) were anaesthetized by urethane (1 g/kg). The gallbladder pressure was recorded continuously to monitor the gallbladder motility. Systemic OT (0.01, 0.02, 0.04 mg/kg, iv) did not affect the gallbladder pressure, but dose-dependently increased the frequency of phasic contraction. Five min after OT administration (0.04 mg/kg, iv), the strength of phasic contraction increased to 0.23 +/- 0.08 mmHg/min (P < 0.01, n = 6). The gallbladder motility returned to normal 15 min later after OT treatment. Intravenous injection of atosiban (0.04 mg/kg, iv), an OT receptor antagonist, decreased the strength of gallbladder phasic contraction but did not affect gallbladder pressure. Pretreatment of atosiban (0.04 mg/kg, iv) completely abolished the systemic OT effect on gallbladder. Vasopressin (VP) (0.1 - 0.5 IU/kg, iv) dose-dependently decrease the gallbladder pressure but did not affect the phasic contraction. MK-329 (0.4 mg/kg, iv), the CCK-A receptor antagonist, L-365, 260 (0.4 mg/kg, iv), the CCK-B receptor antagonist and atropine (0.2 mg/kg, iv), the M receptor antagonist, did not affect the OT effect on gallbladder motility. We suggest that endogenous OT regulates gallbladder phasic contraction through specific OT receptor. This effect is independent of the peripheral CCK and M receptors.     

Pharmacological chaperones for the oxytocin receptor increase oxytocin responsiveness in myometrial cells

Oxytocin is a potent uterotonic agent administered to nearly all patients during childbirth in the United States. Inadequate oxytocin response can necessitate Cesarean delivery or lead to uterine atony and postpartum hemorrhage. Thus, it may be clinically useful to identify patients at risk for poor oxytocin response and develop strategies to sensitize the uterus to oxytocin. Previously, we showed that the V281M variant in the oxytocin receptor (OXTR) gene impairs OXTR trafficking to the cell surface, leading to a decreased oxytocin response in cells. Here, we sought to identify pharmacological chaperones that increased oxytocin response in cells expressing WT or V281M OXTR. We screened nine small-molecule agonists and antagonists of the oxytocin/vasopressin receptor family and identified two, SR49059 and L371,257, that restored both OXTR trafficking and oxytocin response in HEK293T cells transfected with V281M OXTR. In hTERT-immortalized human myometrial cells, which endogenously express WT OXTR, treatment with SR49059 and L371,257 increased the amount of OXTR on the cell surface by two- to fourfold. Furthermore, SR49059 and L371,257 increased the endogenous oxytocin response in hTERT-immortalized human myometrial cells by 35% and induced robust oxytocin responses in primary myometrial cells obtained from patients at the time of Cesarean section. If future studies demonstrate that these pharmacological chaperones or related compounds function similarly in vivo, we propose that they could potentially be used to enhance clinical response to oxytocin.     

The role of oxytocin and oxytocin receptor gene variants in childhood-onset aggression

Aggressive antisocial behaviours are the most common reasons why adolescents are referred to mental health clinics. Antisocial behaviours are costly in social and financial terms. The aetiology of aggressive behaviours is unknown but growing evidence suggests it is heritable, and certain genetic variants have been implicated as contributing factors. The purpose of this study was to determine whether genes regulating the hormone oxytocin (OXT) were associated with aggressive antisocial behaviour. The case-control study sample consisted of 160 cases of children displaying extreme, persistent and pervasive aggressive behaviour. This case sample was compared with 160 adult controls. We used polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to determine the genotype for three oxytocin gene (OXT) single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs): rs3761248, rs4813625 and rs877172; and five oxytocin receptor gene (OXTR) SNPs: rs6770632, rs11476, rs1042778, rs237902 and rs53576. Genotypic analyses were performed using stata, while differences in haplotypic and allelic frequencies were analysed using Unphased. We also performed within-case analyses (n = 236 aggressive cases) examining genotypic and allelic associations with callous-unemotional (CU) scores (as measured by the psychopathic screening device). OXTR SNPs rs6770632 and rs1042778 may be associated with extreme, persistent and pervasive aggressive behaviours in females and males, respectively. These and haplotype results suggest gender-specific effects of SNPs. No significant differences were detected with respect to CU behaviours. These results may help to elucidate the biochemical pathways associated with aggressive behaviours, which may aid in the development of novel medications.     

Angiotensin stimulates oxytocin release

A sensitive and specific radioimmunoassay for oxytocin (OT) was developed to study the effect of angiotensin II (ANG II) upon neurohypophyseal OT release in conscious rats. ANG II injected into the lateral cerebral ventricle (i.c.v.) produced within 60 seconds a steep increase in plasma OT concentration from a control value of 10.46 ± 1.35 fmol/ml to 88.95 ± 5.06 fmol/ml and 119.56 ± 11.46 fmol/ml following 10 and 100 ng i.c.v. ANG II, respectively. Inhibition of OT release by simultaneous application of the ANG II antagonist {Sar¹, Ile⁸}-ANG II suggests that ANG II acted via specific angiotensin receptors in the brain.     

Antipyrogenic properties of oxytocin

Effects of oxytocin on pyrogenal or endogenous pyrogen-induced fever were studied. Intramuscular injection of oxytocin (0.2 micrograms/kg every half an hour) did not significantly affect the pattern of pyrogenal-induced fever. Constant intravenous injection of oxytocin (0.4 and 4 micrograms/kg/h) 2-4.5 h after pyrogenal decreased the rectal temperature, on an average, by 24% and 31%, respectively. Endogenous pyrogen fever was not attenuated by intravenous oxytocin (4 micrograms/kg/h). The antipyrogenic effect of oxytocin is related to inhibition of endogenous pyrogen synthesis rather than to blockade of its action, which is indicated by a decreased second peak of the temperature curve, inhibition of endogenous pyrogen synthesis in vitro, and persistence of the hyperthermic effect of endogenous pyrogen.     

Enzyme immunoassay for oxytocin

A competitive, double antibody enzyme immunoassay for oxytocin in a heterologous system was developed. Horseradish peroxidase was conjugated with oxytocin using N-succinimidyl 3-(2-pyridyldithio) propionate, and rabbit anti-oxytocin serum was produced by immunization of oxytocin-bovine serum albumin complex which was prepared by the carbodiimide method. The sensitivity of the assay was 4 microIU/tube, which corresponded to 10 microIU per ml using 400 microliters of the sample which was extracted from the same volume of plasma by means of SEP-PAK C18 cartridges. The coefficients of variation for different levels of oxytocin ranged from 6.8-15.9% and 8.5-16.7%, for intra- and inter-assay. Recovery of oxytocin added to plasma after extraction was 99-117%. No or little cross-reaction with arginine- and lysine-vasopressin was found. Plasma oxytocin concentrations determined by the proposed enzyme immunoassay were well correlated with those determined by radioimmunoassay (r = 0.90).     

Chromosomal and comparative mapping of rat oxytocin, oxytocin receptor and vasopressin genes

Oxytocin and its receptor are potentially important for cardiovascular functions. In the present paper, we report their chromosome locations in the rat and their comparative mapping with the mouse and human. They are located in chromosome regions previously known to contain quantitative trait loci for blood pressure in various genetic crosses. Thus, they have become valid candidate genes for genetic hypertension.     

Adolescent exposure to oxytocin,but not the selective oxytocin receptor agonist TGOT,increases social behavior and plasma oxytocin in adulthood

There are indications that exposing adolescent rodents to oxytocin (OT) may have positive “trait-changing” effects resulting in increased sociability and decreased anxiety that last well beyond acute drug exposure and into adulthood. Such findings may have relevance to the utility of OT in producing sustained beneficial effects in human psychiatric conditions. The present study further examined these effects using an intermittent regime of OT exposure in adolescence, and using Long Evans rats, that are generally more sensitive to the acute prosocial effects of OT. As OT has substantial affinity for the vasopressin V1a receptor (V1aR) in addition to the oxytocin receptor (OTR), we examined whether a more selective peptidergic OTR agonist – [Thr4, Gly7]-oxytocin (TGOT) – would have similar lasting effects on behavior. Male Long Evans rats received OT or TGOT (0.5–1 mg/kg, intraperitoneal), once every three days, for a total of 10 doses during adolescence (postnatal day (PND) 28–55). Social and anxiety-related behaviors were assessed during acute administration as well as later in adulthood (from PND 70 onwards). OT produced greater acute behavioral effects than TGOT, including an inhibition of social play and reduced rearing, most likely reflecting primary sedative effects. In adulthood, OT but not TGOT pretreated rats displayed lasting increases in social interaction, accompanied by an enduring increase in plasma OT. These findings confirm lasting behavioral and neuroendocrine effects of adolescent OT exposure. However, the absence of such effects with TGOT suggests possible involvement of the V1aR as well as the OTR in this example of developmental neuroplasticity.     

Effects of oxytocin outside pregnancy

For a long time, oxytocin was regarded as a pregnancy hormone released by the hypophysis to stimulate labour and milk ejection. In the present survey, data have been collected from the literature to show the spectrum of the hitherto known functions of oxytocin outside pregnancy. It is now known that oxytocin receptors can occur almost ubiquitously in the organism, that oxytocin is also formed outside of the brain and that oxytocin has functions in a number of organs. In the first part of the survey, stimuli that contribute to an increase in oxytocin release are compiled. In the second part, details are given on the individual oxytocin targets. Although the majority of findings are based on the results of animal experiments, there are already a number of studies that indicate similar effects of oxytocin in humans. According to the current state of knowledge, oxytocin appears to be involved in functions in the following organs: male and non-pregnant female reproductive tract, pancreas, cardiovascular system, kidney, brain and breast. There are indications that oxytocin may also have actions in other organs. There continues to be a considerable need for research into oxytocin in order to better understand the physiological and pathophysiological actions and to be able to derive possible therapeutic uses. Further light on the spectrum of functions of oxytocin may be cast by the possibility of the use of oxytocin antagonists.     

Central oxytocin modulates exercise-induced tachycardia

We have shown that vasopressinergic projections to dorsal brain stem are activated during exercise and facilitate exercise tachycardia in both trained (T) and sedentary (S) rats (Dufloth DL, Morris M, and Michelini LC. Am J Physiol Regulatory Integrative Comp Physiol 273: R1271-R1282, 1997). In the present study, we investigated whether oxytocinergic projections to the nucleus of the solitary tract (NTS)-dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus (DMV) complex (NTS/DMV) are involved in the differential heart rate (HR) response to exercise in T and S rats. Arterial pressure (AP) and HR responses to dynamic exercise (0.4-1.4 km/h) were compared in S and T pretreated with vehicle (saline), oxytocin (OT; 20 pmol/200 nl) or OT-receptor antagonist (OT(ant); 20 pmol/200 nl) into the NTS/DMV. OT content in specific brain regions and plasma were measured in separate S and T groups at rest and immediately after exercise. Exercise increased OT content in dorsal (4.5-fold) and ventral brain stem (2.7-fold) and spinal cord (3.4-fold) only in T rats. No significant changes were observed in neurosecretory regions or medial eminence and posterior pituitary, but plasma levels of T rats were reduced immediately after exercise. Blockade of NTS/DMV OT receptors did not change basal mean AP (MAP) and HR or the MAP response to exercise. However, OT(ant) potentiated exercise-induced tachycardia (average increase of 26%) only in the T group. Pretreatment with exogenous OT in the NTS/DMV blunted the tachycardic response both in S and T rats without changing the MAP response. Administration of OT-receptor antagonist or OT into the fourth cerebral ventricle had no effect on the cardiovascular response to dynamic exercise. Taken together, the results suggest that oxytocinergic projections to the NTS/DMV are stimulated when T rats exercise and that OT released at this level acts on OT receptors to restrain exercise-induced tachycardia.     

Hybrid peptide-small molecule oxytocin analogs are potent and selective agonists of the oxytocin receptor

Oxytocin (OT) is a peptide hormone agonist of the oxytocin receptor (OTR) that has been proposed as a therapeutic to treat a number of social and emotional disorders in addition to its current clinical use to induce labor and treat postpartum bleeding. OT is administered intravenously and intranasally rather than orally, in part because its low passive permeability causes low oral bioavailability. Non-peptidic OTR agonists have also been reported, but none with the exquisite potency of the peptide based agonists. In this report, we describe the OTR agonist activity and exposed polarity of a set of truncated OT analogs as well as hybrid peptide-small molecule analogs of OT. Examples of both truncated analogs and peptide-small molecule hybrid analogs are potent and selective OTR agonists. Hybrid agonist 13, which is 232?Da smaller than OT, still retains subnanomolar potency, full agonist activity, and selectivity over V1a. While these compounds were designed to address the low permeability of OT and other full length analogs, we found that reduction in molecular weight and the removal or replacement of the three amino acid tail of OT did not have a significant effect on passive permeability.