ATP敏感性钾通道开放剂埃他卡林对大鼠低氧性肺动脉高压的影响

目的 :探讨新型ATP敏感性钾通道开放剂 (KATPCO)埃他卡林 (iptkalim ,Ipt)对低氧性肺动脉高压 (HPH)大鼠肺血管重构的影响。方法 :将大鼠置于常压低氧舱内 (O2 1 0 %± 0 .5 % ) ,8h/d ,每周 6d ,4周后测定平均肺动脉压(mPAP)、RV/ (LV +S) ;用图象分析仪测量与呼吸性细支气管伴行的肺小动脉外径 (ED)、动脉中层壁厚 (MT)、动脉管壁中层面积 (MA)、动脉管腔面积 (VA)和血管总面积 (TAA)。结果 :慢性低氧组大鼠的mPAP和RV/ (LV +S)显著高于正常对照组 (P <0 .0 1 ) ;图象分析显示低氧组大鼠肺小动脉中层壁厚与动脉外径百分比 (MT % )、动脉壁中层面积与血管总面积百分比 (MA % )均显著高于对照组 (P <0 .0 1 ) ;慢性低氧组大鼠肺小动脉管腔面积 (VA)与血管总面积 (TAA)百分比显著低于正常组 (P <0 .0 1 )。Ipt 0 .75mg·kg- 1 ·d- 1 和 1 .50mg·kg- 1 ·d- 1 均可显著抑制低氧性肺血管壁重构 ,降低肺动脉压 ,减少右心室肥厚 ,1 .50mg·kg- 1 ·d- 1 则可逆转持续低氧所致的所有病理性变化。结论 :新型KATPCO埃他卡林是一个富有潜力的治疗HPH药物     

SURZB/Kir6.1通道开放剂纳他卡林对低氧致大鼠主动脉内皮细胞损伤的保护作用

目的:探讨纳他卡林对低氧引起大鼠主动脉内皮细胞损伤的保护作用及其机制。方法:选取大鼠主动脉内皮细胞作为体外低氧损伤的细胞模型,分为正常对照组、低氧模型组、纳他卡林低、中、高剂量组,利用MTT法测定细胞生存率,硝酸还原酶法检测一氧化氮(NO)释放,RT-PCR法检测细胞间粘附因子-1(ICAM-1)、内皮素-1(ET-1)、血管内皮生长因子(VEGF)mRNA水平。结果:纳他卡林三个剂量组均可逆转低氧所致的血管内皮细胞功能改变,包括提高内皮细胞生存活力和NO的释放水平,显著抑制低氧引发的内皮细胞ICAM-1,ET-1,VEGF mRNA表达量的上调。结论:纳他卡林对低氧诱发的血管内皮细胞分泌功能改变、细胞通透性增加及炎性因子的分泌均具有保护作用。     

慢性低氧对雄性大鼠血浆皮质酮及睾酮水平的影响

目的:研究低氧对雄性大鼠性腺及相关激素水平的影响。方法:分别检测3km、5km及杭州海拔水平雄性大鼠睾丸和附睾指数、血浆皮质酮和睾酮水平。结果:3km组体重、睾酮含量均显著下降,睾丸指数、血浆皮质酮显著上升;5km组体重、附睾指数和睾酮含量均显著下降,皮质酮含量显著上升。结论:慢性低氧能显著影响雄性成年大鼠性腺及血浆睾酮水平,该结果显示哺乳动物在慢性低氧条件下生殖内分泌功能呈现抑制状态。     

5-HD对慢性低氧肺动脉高压大鼠肺动脉平滑肌PKC-ɑ表达的作用

目的:研究线粒体ATP敏感钾通道(mitoKATP)抑制剂5-羟基癸酸盐(5-HD)对慢性低氧肺动脉高压大鼠的影响及其潜在机制。方法:雄性SD大鼠48只,随机分成4组(n=12):①正常对照组;②慢性低氧组;③慢性低氧+5-HD组;④慢性低氧+Diazoxide(mitoKATP开放剂)组;除正常对照组外,其余3组置于氧舱内(氧浓度10%±0.3%),每天低氧8 h,并接受不同的干预,共4周。干预结束后右心导管法测各大鼠肺动脉压,RT-PCR和Westernblot检测各组大鼠肺动脉PKC-ɑ蛋白和mRNA的表达。结果:①慢性低氧组肺动脉压显著高于正常组(P<0.01),同时慢性低氧+Diazoxide组与慢性低氧+5-HD组肺动脉压较慢性低氧组显著减低(P<0.01)。②慢性低氧组PKC-ɑ蛋白及mRNA的相对表达显著高于正常组(P<0.05)。结论:5-HD对慢性低氧肺动脉高压起保护作用,其机制可能是抑制线粒体ATP敏感钾通道。     

莪术油注射液对慢性低氧大鼠学习与记忆的影响

本文旨在探讨莪术油注射液对慢性低氧大鼠学习与记忆的影响及其可能机制.将Sprague.Dawley大鼠随机分为对照组、慢性低氧组、5 mg/kg体重莪术油组、10 mg/kg体重莪术油组、20 mg/kg体重莪术油组,每组14只.慢性低氧处理采用低氧舱内吸入大约10%O2、5%CO2,饲养10 h/d,持续饲养28 d.莪术油组大鼠低氧处理前腹腔注射相应浓度的莪术油注射液.实验结束次日,通过Morris水迷宫测试各组动物学习和记忆成绩的变化;测定各组大鼠血清和海马组织丙二醛(malonaldehyde,MDA)含量和超氧化物歧化酶(superoxide dismutase,SOD)活性以及海马组织Ca2 浓度([Ca2 i]);通过免疫组织化学和Western blot检测磷酸化Ca2 /钙调蛋白依赖性蛋白激酶Ⅱ(phosphorylated Ca2 /calmodulin-dependent pro-tein kinase Ⅱ,p-CaMKII)在海马组织和胞膜上的表达.结果显示,与对照组相比,慢性低氧组大鼠隐蔽平台的逃避潜伏期明显延长(P<0.05),血清和海马组织MDA含量明显增高,SOD活性显著降低(P<0.05,P<0.01),海马组织[Ca2 ]i明显增高(P<0.01),海马P-CaMKII表达量显著降低(P<0.01).与慢性低氧组比较,莪术油各组发生以下变化:10、20 mg/kg体重莪术油组大鼠隐蔽平台的逃避潜伏期显著缩短(P<0.05):5、10、20 mg/kg体重莪术油组大鼠血清和海马组织MDA含量均显著降低(P相似文献   

肾性高血压大鼠肺动脉平滑肌细胞钾通道的研究

目的:观察肾性高血压大鼠(RHR)肺动脉平滑肌细胞膜电容(Em)、膜电流(I)、电流密度(pA/pF)、膜电位和I-V曲线的变化及盐酸埃他卡林对正常血压及肾性高血压大鼠肺动脉平滑肌钾通道的影响。方法:用内径为0.2~0.3 mm的银夹夹住大鼠左肾肾动脉起始部,制成两肾一夹RHR模型,血压以无创性套尾法测量。急性分离大鼠肺内动脉平滑肌细胞,用全细胞记录技术记录细胞钾电流、膜电容并计算电流密度。结果:RHR肺动脉平滑肌细胞膜电容均值为(3.43±1.16)pF,比正常血压大鼠(NTR,4.98±0.62pF)降低31.1%;钾电流值为(0.54±0.26)nA,比正常大鼠(1.70±0.67nA)降低68.2%;电流密度值为(180±90)pA/pF,比正常大鼠(350±80 pA/pF)降低48.6%;膜电位为(-26.96±7.23)mV,比正常大鼠(-27.66±7.1 mV)降低2.5%。盐酸埃他卡林在0.1-100μmol.L-1浓度下,可显著增强正常血压大鼠动脉平滑肌钾电流;在1.0-100μmol.L-1浓度下,可显著增强肾性高血压大鼠动脉平滑肌钾电流。结论:RHR的膜电容、膜电流、电流密度比正常血压大鼠低,I-V曲线下移。盐酸埃他卡林对正常血压大鼠及肾性高血压大鼠动脉平滑肌钾电流都有增强作用。     

5-HD对慢性低氧肺动脉高压大鼠肺动脉平滑肌PKC-α表达的作用

目的：研究线粒体ATP敏感钾通道（mitoKATP）抑制剂5-羟基癸酸盐（5-HD）对慢性低氧肺动脉高压大鼠的影响及其潜在机制。方法：雄性sD大鼠48只,随机分成4组（n=12）：①正常对照组;②慢性低氧组;③慢性低氧＋5-HD组;④慢性低氧＋Diazoxide（mitoKATP开放剂）组;除正常对照组外,其余3组置于氧舱内（氧浓度10％±0．3％）,每天低氧8h,并接受不同的干预,共4周。干预结束后右心导管法测各大鼠肺动脉压,RT-PCR和Western blot检测各组大鼠肺动脉PKC—α蛋白和mRNA的表达。结果：①慢性低氧组肺动脉压显著高于正常组（P〈0．01）,同时慢性低氧＋Diazoxide组与慢性低氧＋5．HD组肺动脉压较慢性低氧组显著减低（P〈0．01）。②慢性低氧组PKC—α蛋白及mRNA的相对表达显著高于正常组（P〈0．05）。结论：5-HD对慢性低氧肺动脉高压起保护作用,其机制可能是抑制线粒体ATP敏感钾通道。     

埃他卡林对低氧暴露大鼠脑和肺微动脉选择性扩张作用

目的:研究低氧暴露对大鼠脑和肺微动脉内皮功能的影响以及埃他卡林(Ipt)对以上微动脉的扩张作用特征。方法:将雄性SD大鼠随机分为2组,常压常氧组(control)和低氧暴露组(hypoxic),后者置于常压低氧暴露舱内(O27.8%)8 h。分离大鼠管径为(204±5)μm的脑基底动脉、肺微动脉组织,利用DMT微血管张力测定仪在6nmol/L内皮素-1(ET-1)致血管预收缩条件下,利用乙酰胆碱(ACh)考察微动脉内皮功能及观察不同浓度Ipt对脑和肺微动脉张力变化的影响。结果:与常压常氧组对比,10-5 mol/L乙酰胆碱(ACh)对低氧暴露脑肺微动脉扩张率显著降低(P0.05);新型ATP敏感性钾通道开放剂Ipt在(10-11~10-3)mol/L对低氧暴露肺微动脉呈剂量依赖性扩张作用,明显强于对常压常氧组(P0.01),在(10-11~10-3)mol/L对低氧暴露脑微动脉呈剂量依赖性扩张作用,但与常压常氧组相比无显著差异。结论:低氧暴露可导致脑基底动脉和肺微动脉内皮功能受损,Ipt具有选择性增强扩张低氧暴露肺微动脉的作用,但不影响以上条件低氧暴露后脑基底动脉的扩张作用,提示该药可应用于改善低氧暴露所致的肺微血管收缩,为Ipt发展为新型治疗肺动脉高压的药物提供理论基础。     

慢性间断低氧暴露对大鼠心肌线粒体ATP酶及吸链酶复合物的影响

目的:研究慢性间断低氧暴露对大鼠心肌线粒体Na 、K -ATPase和Ca2 、Mg2 -ATPase以及呼吸链酶复合物Ⅰ、Ⅱ、Ⅲ、Ⅳ活性的影响.方法:经慢性间断低氧暴露(模拟海拔3 000 m、5 000 m分别低氧,每天4 h,共2周,最后8 000 m低氧4 h)和急性低氧(模拟海拔8 000 m低氧4 h)的大鼠,断头处死,迅速取出心脏,分离心肌线粒体,用水解磷酸根法测定ATP酶活性,用Clark氧电极法测定呼吸链酶复合物的活性.结果:①慢性间断低氧暴露对大鼠心肌线粒体Na 、K -ATPase的活性无明显影响.②急性低氧大鼠心肌线粒体Ca2 、Mg2 -ATPase的活性较正常大鼠显著降低,而慢性间断低氧暴露大鼠心肌线粒体Ca2 、Mg2 -ATPase的活性则明显升高,接近正常水平.③急性低氧大鼠心肌线粒体呼吸链酶复合物I(NADH-CoQ还原酶)、复合物Ⅱ(琥珀酸-CoQ还原酶)、复合物IV(细胞色素氧化酶)活性较正常大鼠显著降低,而经慢性间断低氧暴露后,三者的活性均显著提高.相同实验条件下,低氧对复合物Ⅲ(CoQ-细胞色素C还原酶)活性无明显影响.结论:慢性间断低氧暴露可以显著提高心肌线粒体Ca2 、Mg2 -ATPase和呼吸链酶复合物Ⅰ、Ⅱ、Ⅳ的活性,从而改善低氧时心肌线粒体呼吸链的功能,维持心肌正常能量代谢,最终提高心肌收缩和舒张功能.     

南瓜多糖对糖尿病大鼠血糖和血脂的影响

目的：研究南瓜多糖对糖尿病大鼠血糖和血脂的影响。方法：Wistar大鼠腹腔注射四氧嘧啶后。将成模的糖尿病大鼠根据血糖和体重随机分为糖尿病组、消渴丸组和南瓜多糖组,同时设立正常对照组,并分别给予蒸馏水、消渴丸和南瓜多糖灌胃,每周测量体重一次,四周后测定空腹血糖、血清总胆固醇、甘油三酯、高密度脂蛋白、低密度脂蛋白和游离脂肪酸的含量。结果：糖尿病组大鼠体重下降,血糖显著升高,甘油三酯、总胆固醇、低密度脂蛋白和游离脂肪酸含量显著增加,而高密度脂蛋白含量显著降低;补充南瓜多糖和消渴丸后,体重逐渐增加,血糖显著下降,总胆固醇、甘油三酯、低密度脂蛋白和游离脂肪酸含量显著降低,高密度脂蛋白含量显著升高,并且南瓜多糖的降糖降脂效果优于消渴丸。结论：南瓜多糖能增加体重,降低糖尿病大鼠血糖、血脂,对糖尿病及其并发症有一定的作用。     

Organelle pH in the Arabidopsis Endomembrane System

The pH of intracellular compartments is essential for the viability of cells. Despite its relevance, little is known about the pH of these compartments. To measure pH in vivo, we have first generated two pH sensors by combining the improved-solubility feature of solubility-modified green fluorescent protein （GFP） （smGFP） with the pH-sensing capabil- ity of the pHluorins and codon optimized for expression in Arabidopsis. PEpHluorin （plant-solubility-modified ecliptic pHluorin） gradually loses fluorescence as pH is lowered with fluorescence vanishing at pH 6.2 and PRpHluorin （plant- solubility-modified ratiomatric pHluorin）, a dual-excitation sensor, allowing for precise measurements. Compartment- specific sensors were generated by further fusing specific sorting signals to PEpHluorin and PRpHluorin. Our results show that the pH of cytosol and nucleus is similar （pH 7.3 and 7.2）, while peroxisomes, mitochondrial matrix, and plastidial stroma have alkaline pH. Compartments of the secretory pathway reveal a gradual acidification, spanning from pH 7.1 in the endoplasmic reticulum （ER） to pH 5.2 in the vacuole. Surprisingly, pH in the trans-Golgi network （TGN） and mul- tivesicular body （MVB） is, with pH 6.3 and 6.2, quite similar. The inhibition of vacuolar-type H＋-ATPase （V-ATPase） with concanamycin A （ConcA） caused drastic increase in pH in TGN and vacuole. Overall, the PEpHluorin and PRpHluorin are excellent pH sensors for visualization and quantification of pH in vivo, respectively.     

Redox Regulation of Arabidopsis Mitochondrial Citrate Synthase

Citrate synthase has a key role in the tricarboxylic （TCA） cycle of mitochondria of all organisms, as it cata- lyzes the first committed step which is the fusion of a carbon-carbon bond between oxaloacetate and acetyl CoA. The regulation of TCA cycle function is especially important in plants, since mitochondrial activities have to be coordinated with photosynthesis. The posttranslational regulation of TCA cycle activity in plants is thus far almost entirely unexplored. Although several TCA cycle enzymes have been identified as thioredoxin targets in vitro, the existence of any thioredoxin-dependent regulation as known for the Calvin cycle, yet remains to be demonstrated. Here we have investigated the redox regulation of the Arabidopsis citrate synthase enzyme by site-directed mutagenesis of its six cysteine residues. Our results indicate that oxidation inhibits the enzyme activity by the formation of mixed disulfides, as the partially oxidized citrate synthase enzyme forms large redox-dependent aggregates. Furthermore, we were able to demonstrate that thioredoxin can cleave diverse intraas well as intermolecular disulfide bridges, which strongly enhances the activity of the enzyme. Activity measurements with the cysteine variants of the enzyme revealed important cysteine residues affecting total enzyme activity as well as the redox sensitivity of the enzyme.     

Cybertaxonomy to accomplish big things in aphid systematics

Biodiversity sciences have progressed at such a pace that the taxonomic community has been unable to grow concomitantly to keep up with the influx of biologicaldata. This ＂taxonomic impediment＂ has led some to suggest that taxonomy is no longer pertinent and to the development of methodologies that circumvent the taxonomic process.This article does not seek to argue for the importance of taxonomy but rather is a call to the aphid taxonomy community to rise to the challenge by dramatically increasing the volume and comprehensiveness of its output without sacrificing quality. Recent informatics technology allows us to mobilize the 2 most important aphid taxonomy resources： expertsand specimens, both distributed globally. ＂Cyberspecimens,＂ museum specimens digitally rendered at a resolution sufficient for remote identification, and open ＂cybertaxonomic＂tools will allow the international aphid taxonomic community to carry out large, ambitious, projects. The global aphid cybertaxonomy proposed here will serve not only the ends ofresearch aphidologists, but also provide a model for other taxonomic communities to adapt and adopt as we confront both the taxonomic impediment and the taxonomic naysayers.     

Emerging roles of miR-210 and other non-coding RNAs in the hypoxic response

Hypoxia is a key component of the tumor microenviron- merit and represents a well-documented source of thera- peutic failure in clinical oncology. Recent work has provided support for the idea that non-coding RNAs, and in particular, microRNAs, may play important roles in the adaptive response to low oxygen in tumors. Specifically, all published studies agree that the induction of microRNA- 210 （miR-210） is a consistent feature of the hypoxic re- sponse in both normal and malignant cells, miR-210 is a robust target of hypoxia-inducible factors, and its overex- pression has been detected in a variety of diseases with a hypoxic component, including most solid tumors. High levels of miR-210 have been linked to an in vivo hypoxic sig- nature and to adverse prognosis in breast and pancreatic cancer patients. A wide variety of miR-210 targets have been identified, pointing to roles in mitochondrial metabol- ism, angiogenesis, DNA damage response, apoptosis, and cell survival. Such targets are suspected to affect the devel- opment of tumors in multiple ways; therefore, an increased knowledge about miR-210＇s functions may lead to novel diagnostic and therapeutic approaches in cancer.     

Cell Wall,Cytoskeleton, and Cell Expansion in Higher Plants

To accommodate two seemingly contradictory biological roles in plant physiology, providing both the rigid structural support of plant cells and the adjustable elasticity needed for cell expansion, the composition of the plant cell wall has evolved to become an intricate network of cellulosic, hemicellulosic, and pectic polysaccharides and protein. Due to its complexity, many aspects of the cell wall influence plant cell expansion, and many new and insightful observations and technologies are forthcoming. The biosynthesis of cell wall polymers and the roles of the variety of proteins involved in polysaccharide synthesis continue to be characterized. The interactions within the cell wall polymer network and the modification of these interactions provide insight into how the plant cell wall provides its dual function. The complex cell wall architecture is controlled and organized in part by the dynamic intracellular cytoskeleton and by diverse trafficking pathways of the cell wall polymers and cell wall-related machinery. Meanwhile, the cell wall is continually influenced by hormonal and integrity sensing stimuli that are perceived by the cell. These many processes cooperate to construct, maintain, and manipulate the intricate plant cell wall--an essential structure for the sustaining of the plant stature, growth, and life.     

Plastid Signals and the Bundle Sheath： Mesophyll Development in Reticulate Mutants

The development of a plant leaf is a meticulously orchestrated sequence of events producing a complex organ comprising diverse cell types. The reticulate class of leaf variegation mutants displays contrasting pigmentation between veins and interveinal regions due to specific aberrations in the development of mesophyll cells. Thus, the reticulate mutants offer a potent tool to investigate cell-type-specific developmental processes. The discovery that most mutants are affected in plastid-localized, metabolic pathways that are strongly expressed in vasculature-associated tis- sues implicates a crucial role for the bundle sheath and their chloroplasts in proper development of the mesophyll cells. Here, we review the reticulate mutants and their phenotypic characteristics, with a focus on those in Arabidopsis thali- ana. Two alternative models have been put forward to explain the relationship between plastid metabolism and meso- phyll cell development, which we call here the supply and the signaling hypotheses. We critically assess these proposed models and discuss their implications for leaf development and bundle sheath function in C3 species. The characteriza- tion of the reticulate mutants supports the significance of plastid retrograde signaling in cell development and highlights the significance of the bundle sheath in C3 photosynthesis.     

Aphis （Hemiptera： Aphididae） species groups found in the Midwestern United States and their contribution to the phylogenetic knowledge of the genus

A phylogeny of the genus Aphis Linnaeus, 1 758 was built primarily from specimens collected in the Midwest of the United States. A data matrix was constructedwith 68 species and 41 morphological characters with respective character states of alate and apterous viviparous females. Dendrogram topologies of analyses performed usingUPGMA （Unweighted Pair Group Method with Arithmetic Mean）, Maximum Parsimony and Bayesian analysis of Cytochrome Oxidase I, Elongation Factor 1-α and primary endosymbiont Buchnera aphidicola 16S sequences were not congruent. Bayesian analysis strongly supported most terminal nodes of the phylogenetic trees. The phylogeny wasstrongly supported by EFI-α, and analysis of COl and EFI-α molecular data combined with morphological characters. It was not supported by single analysis of COI or Buch-hera aphidicola 16S. Results from the Bayesian phylogeny show 4 main species groups： asclepiadis,fabae, gossypii, and middletonii. Results place Aphis and species of the generaProtaphis Bōrner, 1952, Toxoptera Koch, 1856 and Xerobion Nevsky, 1928 in a monophyletic clade. Morphological characters support this monophyly as well. The phylogenyshows that the monophyletic clade of the North American middletonii species group belong to the genus Protaphis： P. debilicornis （Gillette ＆ Palmer, 1929）, comb. nov., P. echinaceae（Lagos and Voegtlin, 2009）, comb. nov., and P. middletonii （Thomas, 1879）. The genus Toxoptera should be considered a subgenus of Aphis （stat. nov.）. The analysis also indicatesthat the current genus Iowana Frison, 1954 should be considered a subgenus of Aphis （stat. nov.）.     

How does the host-specialized aphid deal with food deficiency？

Aphis gossypii Glover shows obvious host specialization, with cucurbit- and cotton-specialized biotypes or host races in many regions. Because its annual natal hostcrops senesce earlier the cucurbit-specialized biotype may suffer food deficiency. The method this biotype uses to overcome this challenge is still poorly understood. In orderto understand the potential of the cucurbit-specialized biotype aphids in host shift and usage, the performance of this biotype on cotton （Gossypium hirsutum）, a common butpoor quality host plant, was explored in this study. The cucurbit-specialized aphids could establish populations on cotton only when these plants had at least nine leaves, and subsequent populations developed rather slowly. The presence of whitefly populations on cotton improved the success rate of cucurbit-specialized aphids. The cucurbit-specialized aphidswere mainly distributed on the older leaves of cotton, with only a few settling on the upper leaves. The cucurbit-specialized aphids reared on cotton for 40, 54 and 61 days stillmaintained strong preference for their natal host plant, cucumber （Cucumis sativus）, rather than cotton, and their net reproductive rates and intrinsic rates of natural increase weredramatically lower when they were transferred onto new six-leaf cotton plants or detached leaves. Therefore, we concluded that the cucurbit-specialized aphids have the potentialto utilize mature or whitefly-stressed cotton plants, but that this feeding experience on cotton did not alter their specialization for cucurbits. Some cotton plants could act as atemporary host for the cucurbit-specialized aphids to overcome food deficiency arising from senescing cucurbits.     

Dissecting the Heat Stress Response in Chlamydomonas by Pharmaceutical and RNAi Approaches Reveals Conserved and Novel Aspects

To study how conserved fundamental concepts of the heat stress response （HSR） are in photosynthetic eukaryotes, we applied pharmaceutical and antisense/amiRNA approaches to the unicellular green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. The Chlamydomonas HSR appears to be triggered by the accumulation of unfolded proteins, as it was induced at ambient temperatures by feeding cells with the arginine analog canavanine. The protein kinase inhibitor staurosporine strongly retarded the HSR, demonstrating the importance of phosphorylation during activation of the HSR also in Chlamydomonas. While the removal of extracellular calcium by the application of EGTA and BAPTA inhibited the HSR in moss and higher plants, only the addition of BAPTA, but not of EGTA, retarded the HSR and impaired thermotoler- ance in Chlamydomonas. The addition of cycloheximide, an inhibitor of cytosolic protein synthesis, abolished the attenu- ation of the HSR, indicating that protein synthesis is necessary to restore proteostasis. HSP90 inhibitors induced a stress response when added at ambient conditions and retarded attenuation of the HSR at elevated temperatures. In addition, we detected a direct physical interaction between cytosolic HSP90A/HSP70A and heat shock factor 1, but surprisingly this interaction persisted after the onset of stress. Finally, the expression of antisense constructs targeting chloroplast HSP70B resulted in a delay of the cell＇s entire HSR, thus suggesting the existence of a retrograde stress signaling cascade that is desensitized in HSP7OB-antisense strains.