Chinanteco management ofAechmea Magdalenae: Implications for the use of TEK and TRM in management plans

The importance of incorporating traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) and traditional resource management (TRM) into resource management plans is increasingly recognized, but little quantitative data exists on the ecological and economic implications of these systems. We quantitatively evaluate the TEK and TRM associated with the nontimber forest species, Aechmea magdalenae, in indigenous Chinanteco communities in Mexico. Two TRM systems forA. magdalenae are described and their effects on growth rates of individuals and populations are measured. Simulations using matrix population models combined with yield experiments reveal that one management system is higher yielding and less costly than the other. Thinning and transplanting are two of the most important management practices that enable populations to withstand higher rates of harvest than those predicted in a management plan that was not based on TRM. Quantitative evaluation of Chinanteco TEK is used to discuss how it may be best combined with science in management plans for nontimber forest species.     

Application of traditional ecological knowledge in the management and sustainability of fisheries in East Africa: a long-neglected strategy?

Management and sustainability of fisheries has been guided by theories and models derived from modern ecological science. Traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) has been ignored in all spheres of decision-making for management and sustainability of fisheries in East Africa. TEK guided African communities in the way they associated and interacted with the natural environment around them. Spiritual rituals, religious practices, social taboos and sacred animal totems guided the peoples on how and when to utilize the available natural resources. In the advent of modern scientific knowledge, the African traditional knowledge quickly faded away and is generally seen as irrelevant. Today the potential of TEK in the management and sustainability of fisheries in East Africa has not been realized and its status and future is unknown. TEK should be complementary to modern scientific knowledge in the management and sustainability of fisheries. This paper therefore focuses on the potential application of TEK in the management and sustainability of fisheries in East Africa and the issues that impede its application.     

Sharing Ethnobotanical Knowledge in Traditional Villages: Evidence of Food and Nutraceutical “Core Groups” in Bali,Indonesia

The island of Bali has several aga (indigenous) villages that have survived despite the pressures of an intense tourist industry and agricultural changes. A rich ethnobotanical culture persists, but the meaning of differences in traditional ethnobotanical knowledge (TEK) remains under-explored. We analyzed information obtained from interviews of inhabitants from diverse villages on food and nutraceutical plants to identify plant patterns, i.e., relevant plant groups with species sharing a similar occurrence. Through cluster analysis, we identified 12 main groups of species and found that species were grouped based on traditional knowledge and the use each community made of plants on the whole, and not on growth forms nor on specific uses. The frequency distribution of species clusters showed a bimodal trend, with several groups present only in few villages, and a few groups present in almost all villages. The latter are defined as “core groups,” and represent the shared TEK of each aga community. Other “satellite species groups” embodied in the local TEK were related to small isolated communities. Cultural erosion caused by modernization, with the consequent fragmentation of information, was judged to be one of the main causes of increasing TEK heterogeneity.     

Pyrenean Pastoralists’ Ecological Knowledge: Documentation and Application to Natural Resource Management and Adaptation

Pastoral production systems in the Spanish Pyrenees have changed dramatically in recent decades, leading to the loss of traditional ecological knowledge (TEK). We documented TEK of pastoralists from two valleys in the western Central Pyrenees of Aragón and explored its potential applications to resource management and adaptation. Pyrenean pastoralists possess extensive knowledge of relationships between terrain, climate, vegetation and animal nutrition and behavior. TEK could contribute to sustainable stewardship and facilitate adaptation by informing pasture monitoring; providing traditional practices to manage mountain vegetation; and preserving knowledge of extensive livestock production strategies, such as transhumance. Institutional barriers to applying TEK include weak economic cooperation among stockmen, their dependence on EU subsidies, and lack of voice in regional government decisions about local resources. A more collaborative, place-based stewardship of the Central Pyrenees might begin with direct involvement of pastoralists in designing monitoring of pasture conditions and vegetation type changes.     

Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK): Ideas,inspiration, and designs for ecological engineering

In coming years society will be forced to adapt to lower energy levels due to projected declines in non-renewable energies. This will increase the challenge to ecological engineers to design sustainable ecosystems, driven by renewable energies to benefit society and the environment. This paper introduces the field of Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) as an important source of ideas, inspiration and designs to help our profession meet this challenge. TEK refers to ecological knowledge and practices of indigenous and local cultures. Because these practices originated and evolved prior to the era of fossil-fuel dominance, they were designed and have continuously adapted to utilize renewable energies and resources. TEK is also well suited to sustainable design due to philosophical differences with Western science and culture. While Western culture views society as apart from and controlling ecosystems, indigenous cultures routinely see themselves as embedded within ecosystems. Because TEK has declined as the influence of Western culture has spread, there is an urgent need to identify and apply this knowledge for future benefit. Collaboration with scientists can help raise the social standing of indigenous people and of TEK within their own communities, thus contributing to cultural survival while maintaining this information. Applications of TEK relevant to ecological engineering including water management and agriculture in the Americas are highlighted.     

Traditional Water Resource Management and Water Quality in Rural Tanzania

Traditional resource management (TRM) is largely based on local ecological knowledge (LEK). In regions where formal institutional control of natural resources is limited due to a lack of coordination or stakeholder involvement, communities rely on TRM to manage common-pool resources. This paper examines TRM among the Sonjo in rural Northern Tanzania, with particular reference to catchment forest protection and water quality. We first document the ecological knowledge of traditional resource managers, and then describe the differences between traditionally managed water sources and formal, government managed resources. Using both qualitative and quantitative methods to examine water use, perceptions of water quality, and bacterial water quality, significant differences were detected among river basins within seasons and between seasons. Our findings indicate that the Sonjo, well known for their traditional forest conservation practices and irrigation management, may also benefit from TRM through improved water quality. The examination of traditional methods of water conservation provides insight into how communities in resource-stressed regions thrive despite seasonal droughts and flooding.     

Forty-five years later: The shifting dynamic of traditional ecological knowledge on Pantelleria Island,Italy

In 1969, Galt and Galt conducted an ethnobotanical survey in the community of Khamma on the volcanic island of Pantelleria, Italy. Since then, a number of botanical studies concerning the local wild flora and cultivation of the zibibbo grape and capers have been conducted, but none have investigated traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) regarding the use of wild plants and fungi. We documented the current TEK and practices concerning wild plants and fungi on the island, focusing on uses related to food and medicine with 42 in-depth interviews in six communities in June 2014. Our aim was to examine shifts in TEK, represented in terms of loss or gain of specific species uses, in comparison to the 1969 study. All interviews were conducted in person in Italian with prior informed consent. We employed two primary means of eliciting responses concerning traditional practices; informants were asked to: 1) free-list the most commonly used plants for wild foods, general medicine, and skin remedies; and 2) view and discuss a booklet composed of photos of species reported in the Galt and Galt study. In total, 86 botanical and 19 fungal species representing 53 families were cited. While many plant-based traditions have disappeared from daily practice, especially those related to traditional fishing and hunting, they remain in the memories of the eldest subset of the population. For example, one of the most pervasive species in the landscape, Opuntia ficus-indica, has current day uses that persist as a food source, but its past applications were much more diverse, and included manipulation into hunting snares for birds. Other predominant flora included a number of Euphorbia spp., whose toxic latex was regularly used as a fish poison. Fungi, on the other hand, nowadays represent an important source of wild food. In conclusion, we documented a decline in knowledge and practice of TEK related to ritual healing, livestock rearing, hunting and fishing practices and an increase in TEK concerning newly introduced edible fungi.     

Diversity and use of palms in Zahamena, eastern Madagascar

Madagascar's palm flora is very diverse (171 species) and has a high degree of endemism (97%). Palm products make an important contribution to the household economy of many rural families, especially in the palm-rich eastern escarpments. Many palms are, however, threatened by overexploitation and habitat destruction. We investigated which palm species were found and used in three villages on the eastern escarpments of Madagascar. The importance local people accorded to each species was compared to the number of its uses, number of people using it, and other aspects of its use. From this comparison it was concluded that even if important palms are used for more purposes than less important palms, they owe their importance to one or two of their main uses. We also investigated if there were any patterns in the distribution of informants' knowledge and whether such patterns could be related to socio-economic factors. There was a positive relationship between knowledge about palms and personal wealth and a negative relationship between distance to the forest and amount of knowledge. The latter can be a sign of an ongoing knowledge erosion. Sustainable use of native palms should be encouraged as it may contribute positively to village economy and knowledge preservation, and may provide incentives for preservation of remaining forest tracts.     

Hunting and Morality as Elements of Traditional Ecological Knowledge

Contemporary subsistence hunting practices of North American Indians have been questioned because of hunters’ use of modern technologies and integration of wage-based and subsistence livelihoods. Tribal traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) has been questioned on similar grounds and used as justification for ignoring tribal perspectives on critical natural resource conservation and development issues. This paper examines hunting on the Lac du Flambeau Indian Reservation in North Central Wisconsin, USA. The study used semi-structured interviews with hunters from the reservation to document their contemporary hunting practices and the traditional moral code that informs their hunting-related behaviors and judgments. Subsistence hunting is framed in the context of TEK and attention focused on the interplay between TEK’s practical and moral dimensions. Results indicate the importance of traditional moral codes in guiding a community’s contemporary hunting practices and the inseparability and interdependence of epistemological, practical, and ethical dimensions of TEK.     

Lack of knowledge or loss of knowledge? Traditional ecological knowledge of population dynamics of threatened plant species in East-Central Europe

Use of traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) is often recommended to relieve knowledge deficit in conservation. However, studies on traditional knowledge of threatened species are scarce, especially in Europe. Twenty-three interviews about 20 threatened plant species (name, habitat, flowering time, human use, population trends, causes of decline or growth) were conducted in each of the two contrasting landscapes, traditional in Romania (Gyimes), abandoned in Hungary (Zala). Amount of knowledge relevant to conservation was less than expected. Habitat and flowering time was known the best, and causes of population decline and growth the least. Better known plants had richer TEK on their dynamics (65% of species in Gyimes, and 35% in Zala). We documented many cases of positive and negative effects of manuring, fertilization, eradication, grazing, mowing, picking, drought, succession, and abandonment. Most knowledge originated from personal experience, and shared knowledge seemed to be limited. Knowledge deficiency may be explained by the stability of the landscape, and the ignorance of many threatened species by locals in Gyimes (lack of knowledge), and by the abandonment of traditional land use and ignorance in Zala (loss of knowledge). We argue that substantial TEK on threatened species may be expected for those species that have been utilized as a resource or have hindered the utilization of a resource. We argue that TEK can provide relevant information to conservation less at the population, and more at the habitat and landscape level.     

Demographic and traditional knowledge perspectives on the current status of Canadian polar bear subpopulations

Subpopulation growth rates and the probability of decline at current harvest levels were determined for 13 subpopulations of polar bears (Ursus maritimus) that are within or shared with Canada based on mark–recapture estimates of population numbers and vital rates, and harvest statistics using population viability analyses (PVA). Aboriginal traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) on subpopulation trend agreed with the seven stable/increasing results and one of the declining results, but disagreed with PVA status of five other declining subpopulations. The decline in the Baffin Bay subpopulation appeared to be due to over‐reporting of harvested numbers from outside Canada. The remaining four disputed subpopulations (Southern Beaufort Sea, Northern Beaufort Sea, Southern Hudson Bay, and Western Hudson Bay) were all incompletely mark–recapture (M‐R) sampled, which may have biased their survival and subpopulation estimates. Three of the four incompletely sampled subpopulations were PVA identified as nonviable (i.e., declining even with zero harvest mortality). TEK disagreement was nonrandom with respect to M‐R sampling protocols. Cluster analysis also grouped subpopulations with ambiguous demographic and harvest rate estimates separately from those with apparently reliable demographic estimates based on PVA probability of decline and unharvested subpopulation growth rate criteria. We suggest that the correspondence between TEK and scientific results can be used to improve the reliability of information on natural systems and thus improve resource management. Considering both TEK and scientific information, we suggest that the current status of Canadian polar bear subpopulations in 2013 was 12 stable/increasing and one declining (Kane Basin). We do not find support for the perspective that polar bears within or shared with Canada are currently in any sort of climate crisis. We suggest that monitoring the impacts of climate change (including sea ice decline) on polar bear subpopulations should be continued and enhanced and that adaptive management practices are warranted.     

Diversity of palm uses in the western Amazon

We used palm knowledge to understand the interaction between people and the rainforests and the factors that influence this dynamic process. We interviewed 278 informants in 12 villages in the Pastaza and Madidi areas of the western Amazon basin. Together they used 38 different palm species for 38 different uses in six use-categories (food, construction, utensils, ritual, medicine, commercial). Euterpe precatoria, Iriartea deltoidea, and Oenocarpus bataua were best known and were mentioned as useful by 76–72% of the informants in the 12 villages. There was a great variation in number of uses and in how widespread the uses were and five of the 38 useful palms were mentioned by only one informant. Among the socioeconomic factors analyzed, the residence village influenced the informants’ knowledge of palms and their uses more than any other factor. Length of education, prosperity and for how long the informant had lived in the village were also positively correlated to how many palms and palm uses were known. Gender differences in informants’ knowledge of palm uses were not observed in our data. We suggest, that the high importance of forest products to the livelihood of the villagers, the great variation in the knowledge they possess, and the fact that the differences between villages is so great, are important elements to consider when developing management plans for the sustainable use of the rainforest resources in the western Amazon.     

Differences in invasiveness between two cryptic species of the coconut beetle <Emphasis Type="Italic">Brontispa longissima</Emphasis> in Timor-Leste

Brontispa longissima (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) is a serious pest of coconut palm, and the species contains two cryptic species: the “Asian clade” is distributed over a wide area, including Asia and the Pacific region, whereas the “Pacific clade” is distributed in a limited area. Recent invasions and outbreaks have only been reported for the Asian clade, suggesting that invasive ability may differ between the clades. To reveal differences in invasiveness, we investigated the damage potential on coconut palm and range expansion of the two clades in Timor-Leste, where both clades are present. Distribution of the clades and of severely damaged trees indicated that range expansion and outbreaks have occurred for the Asian clade but not for the Pacific clade. The Asian clade attacked trees taller than 10 m, whereas the Pacific clade seldom attacked these trees. The preference for the taller trees, which are more abundant, can facilitate range expansion and outbreaks of the Asian clade. The beetle has spread through areas where coconut palms are continuously available, but have not expanded their distribution where coconut palms are separated by large gaps. This indicates that areas free of coconut palm could serve as buffer zones to prevent spread of this beetle.     

The Use ofSabal uresana (Arecaceae) and other Palms in Sonora,Mexico

Sabal uresana was the palm most often discussed in published historic accounts from Sonora, Mexico, and the only palm mentioned from the earliest written documents to the present. An inventory of topographic maps identified 337 palm place names, thus reinforcing the cultural significance of palms in this region. Participant observation and formal interviews were used to learn how wild-harvested palms are utilized in present-day Sonora.Sabal uresana is the most economically important palm. Its leaves are employed for weaving, the major use of palms in this region, and for thatching and broom-making. Palm logs are used for construction and the fruits are eaten in certain parts of the state. The use of palms in Sonora is changing. Weaving and thatching could probably be maintained as viable crafts and sources of income with appropriate resource management and marketing.     

Palm Management in South America

We reviewed information on management of useful palms in South America. We documented management for 96 species, from incidental activities intended to increase populations of wild palms to the inclusion of palms in complex agroforestry systems. Two species, Bactris gasipaes and Parajubaea cocoides, are domesticated. Managed species are remarkably fewer than species used in the region, which suggests that harvesters often disregard the fate of the species they use. The best way of managing palms is to employ harvest methods that do not decimate the populations. Although a variety of harvesting techniques have been documented, overharvest is common, and mismanagement prevails – unnecessary felling of palms in order to harvest leaves or fruits is a widespread practice. Research should focus on assessing production in response to management practices, but eradicating the habit of destructive harvest is an obvious priority. Research on palm management must be combined with actions addressed to all stakeholders of the palm/humans system.     

Establishment growth of cabbage palm,sabal palmetto (arecaceae)

Cabbage palms (Sabal palmetto) go through an establishment phase during which the stem grows downward for a period of time before growing upward. We estimated the duration of this phase for cabbage palms growing in coastal forest in Florida using a matrix model approach. All data were collected over a 2-yr period (1993-1995) in coastal forest at Waccasassa∗∗∗ Bay, Florida. The minimum time projected by the model for a plant to develop an aboveground trunk was 14 yr. We estimate that the fastest growing 1, 10, and 50% of plants would develop an aboveground trunk in 33, 42, and 59 yr, respectively. The projected duration of the trunkless phase is surprisingly long but not unlike other palms with similar types of establishment growth. Our estimates are much longer than anecdotal estimates for cabbage palms grown under nursery conditions but are similar to anecdotal estimates for plants grown in field conditions. Management practices that remove cabbage palms with aboveground stems usually leave a population of palms without aboveground stems that serves as temporary reserve for relatively rapid recovery of the palm stand. This may foster the perception by many that cabbage palms are fast growing.     

Harvesting Effects and Population Ecology of the Buriti Palm (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Mauritia flexuosa</Emphasis> L. f., Arecaceae) in the Jalapão Region,Central Brazil<Superscript>1</Superscript>

Harvesting Effects and Population Ecology of Buriti Palm (Mauritia flexuosa L. f., Arecaceae) in the Jalapão Region, Central Brazil. Buriti palm is used for several purposes in Jalapão, Brazil, among which harvesting of young leaves has the greatest potential impact on palm populations. This work aimed to (i) assess buriti palm uses, (ii) identify experimentally the impacts of young-leaf harvesting on growth, survival, and leaf production of individuals, (iii) evaluate density and structure of buriti populations at different distances from a local harvester community, and (iv) quantify the fiber yield of young leaves. We conducted 21 interviews, sampled six buriti palm populations, and monitored 60 buriti individuals to evaluate the impacts of harvesting young leaves. The harvesting practices of artisans did not affect the survival, leaf production, or growth of buriti individuals. The buriti palm is abundant and has a “reverse J” population structure, indicating population regeneration. However, some signs of overexploitation were pointed out by local harvesters and observed in the field; therefore, we recommend management practices that would contribute to sustainability, such as harvesting young leaves from individuals with a large number of mature green leaves, and harvesting young leaves in sites far from the communities.     

Methylation levels of a novel genetic element, EgNB3 as a candidate biomarker associated with the embryogenic competency of oil palm

The association between DNA methylation status and embryogenic competency in oil palm tissue culture was examined through Representational Difference Analysis (RDA) approach, using methylation-sensitive restriction endonucleases. “Difference Products” (DPs) of RDA derived from palms of similar genetic backgrounds but exhibiting different embryogenesis rates during the regeneration process were isolated. The DPs were sequenced using a pyrosequencing platform. To our knowledge, this is the first study profiling partial HpaII methylation sites in oil palm young leaf tissues which are potentially associated with embryogenic amenability through a genomic subtractive approach. Quantitative real-time PCR analysis demonstrated that the methylation status of a novel fragment, EgNB3, was higher in highly embryogenic leaf explants compared to low embryogenesis rate materials. These differences are likely to be contributed by the 5′-^mCCGG-3′ and/or 5′-^mC^mCGG-3′ methylation patterns. Our data suggest that the differentially methylated site in EgNB3 has potential as a molecular biomarker for the screening of oil palm leaf explants for their embryogenic potentials.     

传统生态知识的民族生态学分析框架

传统生态知识是民族生态学研究的核心范畴,国外已有多年的研究基础,国内的相关研究正是方兴未艾。通过文献查询和比较分析等方法,介绍了国外已有的传统生态知识的民族生态学分析框架的3个模型:知识-实践-信仰的三角形框架;本土经验知识-资源管理知识-社会制度知识-世界观知识的四椭圆框架;事实观察-管理体系-旧有及当下利用-伦理价值-文化特征-宇宙观的五边形框架。结合田野调查研究,提出了一个立体的传统生态知识的民族生态学分析模型,强调了传统生态知识的动态特征,将民族对于自然的被动认识和主动认知、民族人际关系规范、民族的哲学与伦理等方面所呈现出的传统生态知识进行了分类,从而为民族生态学的调查研究提供了方法上的建议。最后总结了这个立体的传统生态知识分析框架的意义,并建议在我国的生态文明建设中发展和应用民族生态学。