Hydrolysis of different chain length xylooliogmers by cellulase and hemicellulase

Commercial cellulase complexes produced by cellulolytic fungi contain enzyme activities that are capable of hydrolyzing non-cellulosic polysaccharides in biomass, primarily hemicellulose and pectins, in addition to cellulose. However, xylanase activities detected in most commercial enzyme preparations have been shown to be insufficient to completely hydrolyze xylan, resulting in high xylooligomer concentrations remaining in the hydrolysis broth. Our recent research showed that these xylooligomers are stronger inhibitors of cellulase activity than others have previously established for glucose and cellobiose, making their removal of great importance. In this study, a HPLC system that can measure xylooligomers with degrees of polymerization (DP) up to 30 was applied to assess how Spezyme CP cellulase, Novozyme 188 β-glucosidase, Multifect xylanase, and non-commercial β-xylosidase enzymes hydrolyze different chain length xylooligomers derived from birchwood xylan. Spezyme CP cellulase and Multifect xylanase partially hydrolyzed high DP xylooligomers to lower DP species and monomeric xylose, while β-xylosidase showed the strongest ability to degrade both high and low DP xylooligomers. However, about 10-30% of the higher DP xylooligomers were difficult to be breakdown by cellulase or xylanase and about 5% of low DP xylooligomers (mainly xylobiose) proved resistant to hydrolysis by cellulase or β-glucosidase, possibly due to low β-xylosidase activity in these enzymes and/or the precipitation of high DP xylooligomers.     

Thermostable xylanase from Marasmius sp.: purification and characterization

We have screened 766 strains of fungi from the BIOTEC Culture Collection (BCC) for xylanases working in extreme pH and/or high temperature conditions, the so-called extreme xylanases. From a total number of 32 strains producing extreme xylanases, the strain BCC7928, identified by using the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) sequence of rRNA to be a Marasmius sp., was chosen for further characterization because of its high xylanolytic activity at temperature as high as 90 degrees C. The crude enzyme possessed high thermostability and pH stability. Purification of this xylanase was carried out using an anion exchanger followed by hydrophobic interaction chromatography, yielding the enzyme with >90% homogeneity. The molecular mass of the enzyme was approximately 40 kDa. The purified enzyme retained broad working pH range of 4-8 and optimal temperature of 90 degrees C. When using xylan from birchwood as substrate, it exhibits Km and Vmax values of 2.6 +/- 0.6 mg/ml and 428 +/- 26 U/mg, respectively. The enzyme rapidly hydrolysed xylans from birchwood, beechwood, and exhibited lower activity on xylan from wheatbran, or celluloses from carboxymethylcellulose and Avicel. The purified enzyme was highly stable at temperature ranges from 50 to 70 degrees C. It retained 84% of its maximal activity after incubation in standard buffer containing 1% xylan substrate at 70 degrees C for 3 h. This thermostable xylanase should therefore be useful for several industrial applications, such as agricultural, food and biofuel.     

Xylan binding subsite mapping in the xylanase from Penicillium simplicissimum using xylooligosaccharides as cryo-protectant

Following a recent low-temperature crystal structure analysis of the native xylanase from Penicillium simplicissimum [Schmidt et al. (1998) Protein Sci. 7, 2081-2088], where an array of glycerol molecules, diffused into the crystal during soaking in a cryoprotectant, was observed within the active-site cleft, we utilized monomeric xylose as well as a variety of linear (Xn, n = 2 to 5) and branched xylooligomers at high concentrations (typically 20% w/v) as cryoprotectant for low-temperature crystallographic experiments. Binding of the glycosidic moiety (or its hydrolysis products) to the enzyme's active-site cleft was observed after as little as 30 s soaking of a native enzyme crystal. The use of a substrate or substrate analogue as cryoprotectant therefore suggests itself as a simple and widely applicable alternative to the use of crystallographic flow-cells for substrate-saturation experiments. Short-chain xylooligomers, i.e., xylobiose (X2) and xylotriose (X3), were found to bind to the active-site cleft with its reducing end hydrogen-bonded to the catalytic acid-base catalyst Glu132. Xylotetraose (X4) and -pentaose (X5) had apparently been cleaved during the soaking time into a xylotriose plus a monomeric (X4) or dimeric (X5) sugar. While the trimeric hydrolysis product was always found to bind in the same way as xylotriose, the monomer or dimer yielded only weak and diffuse electron density within the xylan-binding cleft, at the opposite side of the active center. This suggests that the two catalytic residues divide the binding cleft into a "substrate recognition area" (from the active site toward the nonreducing end of a bound xylan chain), with strong and specific xylan binding and a "product release area" with considerably weaker and less specific binding. The size of the substrate recognition area (3-4 subsites for sugar rings) explains enzyme kinetic data, according to which short oligomers (X2 and X3) bind to the enzyme without being hydrolyzed.     

Mechanistic characterization of the HDV genomic ribozyme: assessing the catalytic and structural contributions of divalent metal ions within a multichannel reaction mechanism

Hepatitis delta virus (HDV) uses genomic and antigenomic ribozymes in its replication cycle. We examined ribozyme self-cleavage over eight orders of magnitude of Mg(2+) concentration, from approximately 10(-9) to 10(-1) M. These experiments were carried out in 1 M NaCl to aid folding of the ribozyme and to control the ionic strength. The concentration of free Mg(2+) ions was established using an EDTA-Mg(2+) buffered system. Over the pH range of 5-9, the rate was independent of Mg(2+) concentration up to 10(-7) M, and of the addition of a large excess of EDTA. This suggests that in the presence of 1 M NaCl, the ribozyme can fold and cleave without using divalent metal ions. Br?nsted analysis under these reaction conditions suggests that solvent and hydroxide ions may play important roles as general base and specific base catalysts. The observed rate constant displayed a log-linear dependence on intermediate Mg(2+) concentration from approximately 10(-7) to 10(-4) M. These data combined with the shape of the pH profile under these conditions are consistent with the binding of at least one structural divalent metal ion that does not participate in catalysis and binds tighter at lower pH. No evidence for a catalytic role for Mg(2+) was found at low or intermediate Mg(2+) concentrations. Addition of Mg(2+) to physiological and higher concentrations, from 10(-3) to 10(-1) M, revealed a second saturable divalent metal ion which binds tighter at high pH. The shape of the pH profile is inverted relative to that at low Mg(2+) concentrations, consistent with a general acid-base catalysis mechanism in which a cytosine (C75) acts as the general acid and a hydroxide ion from the divalent metal ion, or possibly from solvent, acts as the base. Overall, the data support a model in which the HDV ribozyme can self-cleave by multiple divalent ion-independent and -dependent channels, and in which the contribution of Mg(2+) to catalysis is modest at approximately 25-fold. Surface electrostatic potential maps were calculated on the self-cleaved form of the ribozyme using the nonlinear Poisson-Boltzmann equation. These calculations revealed several patches of high negative potential, one of which is present in a cleft near N4 of C75. These calculations suggest that distinct catalytic and structural metal ion sites exist on the ribozyme, and that the negative potential at the active site may help shift the pK(a) for N3 of C75 toward neutrality.     

北京市某社区女性居民膳食模式与常见慢性病的关系

目的：了解北京市某社区女性居民的主要膳食模式及与常见慢性病的关系。方法：于2018年5月--2019年2月,采用多阶段整群随机抽样的方式对辖区内460名18~70岁女性居民进行问卷调查。收集基本资料、饮食行为习惯、家族病史、慢病史、治疗史等情况,分析饮食行为对常见慢性病的影响。结果：北京市白纸坊社区女性居民共有4种主要膳食模式,分别为：“传统膳食模式”（占43.1%）、“以肉类为主膳食模式”（占27.9%）、“水果蛋奶膳食模式”（占16.4%）和“主食、酒类和饮料膳食模式”（占12.6%）。Logistic 回归分析提示：在控制混杂因素后,“以肉类为主膳食模式”和“主食、酒类和饮料膳食模式”与社区女性居民高血压呈正相关性（OR=1.314和1.995,P<0.05）。“传统膳食模式”和“主食、酒类和饮料膳食模式”与社区女性居民糖尿病呈正相关性（OR=1.239和1.332,P<0.05）。“以肉类为主膳食模式”和“主食、酒类和饮料膳食模式”与社区女性居民血脂异常呈正相关性（OR=1.902和1.557,P<0.05）。“以肉类为主膳食模式”与社区女性居民冠心病呈正相关性（OR=1.338,P<0.05）。结论：社区女性居民膳食模式构成存在一定的不合理,且与主要慢性病的发生相关,应控制相关影响因素,促进健康、合理的膳食模式,降低慢性病的发生。     

Fusion of family VI cellulose binding domains to Bacillus halodurans xylanase increases its catalytic activity and substrate-binding capacity to insoluble xylan

A tandem repeat of the family VI cellulose binding domain (CBD) from Clostridium stercorarium xylanase (XylA) was fused at the carboxyl-terminus of Bacillus halodurans xylanase (XylA). B. halodurans XylA is an enzyme which is active in the alkaline region of pH and lacks a CBD. The constructed chimera was expressed in Escherichia coli, purified to homogeneity, and then subjected to detailed characterization. The chimeric enzyme displayed pH activity and stability profiles similar to those of the parental enzyme. The optimal temperature of the chimera was observed at 60 °C and the enzyme was stable up to 50 °C. Binding studies with insoluble polysaccharides indicated that the chimera had acquired an increased affinity for oat spelt xylan and acid-swollen cellulose. The bound chimeric enzyme was desorbed from insoluble substrates with sugars and soluble polysaccharides, indicating that the CBDs also possess an affinity for soluble sugars. Overall, the chimera displayed a higher level of hydrolytic activity toward insoluble oat spelt xylan than its parental enzyme and a similar level of activity toward soluble xylan.     

Purification and characterization of an endoxylanase from the culture broth of Bacillus cereus BSA1

An extracellular xylanase from the fermented broth of Bacillus cereus BSA1 was purified and characterized. The enzyme was purified to 3.43 fold through ammonium sulphate precipitation, DEAE-cellulose chromatography and followed by gel filtration through Sephadex G-100 column. The molecular mass of the purified xylanse was about 33 kDa. The enzyme was an endoxylanase as it initially degraded xylan to xylooligomers. The purified enzyme showed optimum activity at 55 degrees C and at pH 7.0 and remained reasonably stable in a wide range ofpH (5.0-8.0) and temperature (40-65 degrees C). The Km and Vmax values were found to be 8.2 mg/ml and 181.8 micromol/(min mg), respectively. The enzyme had no apparent requirement ofcofactors, and its activity was strongly inhibited by Cu++, Hg++. It was also a salt tolerant enzyme and stable upto 2.5 M of NaCl and retained its 85% activity at 3.0 M. For stability and substrate binding, the enzyme needed hydrophobic interaction that revealed when most surfactants inhihited xylanase activity. Since the enzyme was active over wide range ofpH, temperature and remained active in higher salt concentration, it could find potential uses in biobleaching process in paper industries.     

Production of xylose-containing fermentation media by enzymatic post-hydrolysis of oligomers produced by corn cob autohydrolysis

Xylooligomer solutions from autohydrolysis of corn cobs were subjected to an enzymatic post-hydrolysis using commercial enzymes with xylanolytic activity. The effect of temperature and pH on the conversion of xylooligomers into xylose was assessed at low enzyme to substrate ratio. Further experiments to evaluate the influence of enzyme loading were carried out. Balanced mixtures of selected formulations were also used. The xylose solutions obtained by coupling autohydrolysis and enzymatic post-hydrolysis stages contained up to 24 g xylose/l, were free of sugar-dehydration products and, by selecting the enzyme dosage and activities, the acetic acid concentration could be reduced, thus improving their potential fermentability. Regardless of the endo- and exo-activity loadings, the maximum conversion achieved either with single or with mixed commercial formulations, was 80% of the theoretical. This fact suggests the existence of a remaining fraction of substituted xylooligomers accounting for 20% of the initial xylan. A close relationship between deacetylation and xylose generation was also observed.     

Molecular cloning and heterologous expression of an alkaline xylanase from Bacillus pumilus HBP8 in Pichia pastoris

The xynHB gene, encoding alkaline xylanase was cloned from Bacillus pumilus by a shot-gun method. The gene was cloned into vector pHBM905A, and expressed in Pichia pastoris GS115. Xylanase-secreting transformants were selected on plates containing RBB-xylan. Enzymatic activity in the culture supernatants was up to 644?U?mL^?1 and the optimal secretion time was 4 days at 25°C. SDS-PAGE showed two bands, of 32.2?kDa and 29.6?kDa, both larger than the predicted mass of 22.4?kDa based on its amino acid sequence. Zymogram analysis demonstrated that the enzyme in both bands could hydrolyze xylan. Deglycosylation by endoglycosidase H revealed that both were derived from the same protein but contain different extents of glycosylation (30 and 25%). The optimal pH and temperature of the enzyme was pH6–9 and 50°C, respectively.     

Chemical modification of a xylanase from a thermotolerant Streptomyces. Evidence for essential tryptophan and cysteine residues at the active site.

Extracellular xylanase produced in submerged culture by a thermotolerant Streptomyces T7 growing at 37-50 degrees C was purified to homogeneity by chromatography on DEAE-cellulose and gel filtration on Sephadex G-50. The purified enzyme has an Mr of 20,463 and a pI of 7.8. The pH and temperature optima for the activity were 4.5-5.5 and 60 degrees C respectively. The enzyme retained 100% of its original activity on incubation at pH 5.0 for 6 days at 50 degrees C and for 11 days at 37 degrees C. The Km and Vmax. values, as determined with soluble larch-wood xylan, were 10 mg/ml and 7.6 x 10(3) mumol/min per mg of enzyme respectively. The xylanase was devoid of cellulase activity. It was completely inhibited by Hg2+ (2 x 10(-6) M). The enzyme degraded xylan, producing xylobiose, xylo-oligosaccharides and a small amount of xylose as end products, indicating that it is an endoxylanase. Chemical modification of xylanase with N-bromosuccinimide, 2-hydroxy-5-nitrobenzyl bromide and p-hydroxymercuribenzoate (PHMB) revealed that 1 mol each of tryptophan and cysteine per mol of enzyme were essential for the activity. Xylan completely protected the enzyme from inactivation by the above reagents, suggesting the presence of tryptophan and cysteine at the substrate-binding site. Inactivation of xylanase by PHMB could be restored by cysteine.     

嗜碱芽孢杆菌C-125木糖苷酶基因的表达与酶特征鉴定

嗜碱芽孢杆菌(Bacillus halodurans)C-125菌株的基因组中,一个编码木糖苷酶的基因(BH1068)被克隆并在大肠杆菌中获得高效表达。通过全面分析纯化蛋白,确证了它的木糖苷酶功能。该酶在pH4～9的范围内保持稳定,最适pH值为中性,有较宽的最适温度(35°C～45°C),且能在45°C范围内保持稳定。这些特性使得该酶可在较为宽广的条件下对木聚糖进行酶促降解。该酶对人工合成底物对硝基苯-β-木糖苷(p-nitrophenyl-β-xylose,pNPX)的比活力为174mU/mg蛋白质,且木糖对其反馈抑制较弱(抑制常数Ki为300mmol/L)。结果显示该酶是活性较高且较耐木糖抑制的细菌源木糖苷酶。该酶与商品化的木聚糖酶一起水解山毛举木聚糖(Beechwood xylan)时显示了增效作用,且水解率可获40%。该酶最适pH为中性,对木糖耐受等特性与大多数来源于真菌、最适pH为酸性、对木糖敏感的木糖苷酶将有较好的互补。结果表明该酶在木聚糖或含木聚糖多糖的单糖化过程可能发挥重要作用。     

Cloning, expression, and characterization of a new xylanase with broad temperature adaptability from Streptomyces sp. S9

A new xylanase gene, xynAS9, was cloned from Streptomyces sp. S9, which was isolated from Turpan Basin, China. The full-length gene consists of 1,395 bp and encodes 465 amino acids including 38 residues of a putative signal peptide. The overall amino acid sequence shares the highest identity (50.8%) with a putative endo-1,4-beta-xylanase from Streptomyces avermitilis of the glycoside hydrolase family 10. The gene fragment encoding the mature xylanase was expressed in Escherichia coli BL21 (DE3). The recombinant protein was purified to electrophoretic homogeneity and subsequently characterized. The optimal pH and temperature for the recombinant enzyme were 6.5 and 60 degrees C, respectively. The enzyme showed broad temperature adaptability, retaining more than 65% of the maximum activity when assayed at 50-80 degrees C. The enzyme also had good thermal and pH stability. The K (m) values for oat spelt xylan and birchwood xylan substrates were 2.85 and 2.43 mg ml(-1), with the V (max) values of 772.20 and 490.87 mumol min(-1) mg(-1), respectively. The hydrolysis products of xylan were mainly xylose and xylobiose. These favorable properties should make XynAS9 a good candidate in various industrial applications.     

Extracellular proteases from eight psychrotolerant Antarctic strains

Extracellular proteases from 8 Antarctic psychrotolerant Pseudomonas sp. strains were purified and characterised. All of them are neutral metalloproteases, have an apparent molecular mass of 45kDa, optimal activity at 40 degrees C and pH 7-9, retaining significant activity at pH 5-11. With the exception of P96-18, which is less stable, all retain more than 50% activity after 3 h of incubation at pH 5-9 and show low thermal stability (their half-life times range from 20 to 60 min at 40 degrees C and less than 5 min at 50 degrees C). These proteases can be used in commercial processes carried out at neutral pH and moderate temperatures, and are of special interest for their application in mixtures of enzymes where final thermal selective inactivation is needed. Results also highlight the relevance of Antarctic biotopes for the isolation of protease-producing enzymes active at low temperatures.     

Production of high level of cellulase-free and thermostable xylanase by a wild strain of Thermomyces lanuginosus using beechwood xylan

Thermomyces lanuginosus, isolated from self-heated jute stacks in Bangladesh, was studied for production of high level of cellulase-free thermostable xylanase at 50°C using xylan. Optimization of the medium composition was carried out on shake-flask level using Graeco-Latin square technique. This increased xylanase production from 527 nkat ml⁻¹ in the original medium to 9168–9502 nkat ml⁻¹ in the optimized medium under optimized culture conditions e.g. initial medium pH (6.0–6.5), culture temperature (50°C) and time (5–6 d). The lag phase was very much shorter in the laboratory reactor compared to which existed in the shake cultures and 7111 nkat of xylanase activity were obtained per ml of culture filtrate at 60 h of cultivation. With a 15 min reaction time, the optimal pH and temperature for the xylanase activity were at 6.5 and 65°C, respectively. The enzyme was almost stable over a broad range of pH 3–9 at 20°C, with an optimum stability at pH 6.5. After 51 h heating at 50°C the enzyme retained 60%, 100% and 90% activity at pH 5.0, 6.5 and 8.0, respectively. The crude enzyme could hydrolyse xylan effectively and in only 6 h 67.3%, 54.0% and 49.2% saccharifications were achieved for 2%, 5% and 10% substrate levels, respectively. The principal product of hydrolysis was xylobiose together with smaller amounts of xylooligosaccharides (degree of polymerization 3–7) and xylose.     

Arabidopsis family GT43 members are xylan xylosyltransferases required for the elongation of the xylan backbone

Xylan is the second most abundant polysaccharide in plant biomass targeted for biofuel production. Therefore, it is imperative to understand the biochemical mechanism underlying xylan biosynthesis. Although previous genetic studies have identified several genes implicated in xylan biosynthesis, biochemical proof of any of their encoded proteins as a xylan xylosyltransferase (XylT) responsible for xylan backbone biosynthesis is still lacking. In this study, we investigated the enzymatic activities of two Arabidopsis thaliana GT43 members, IRX9 (Irregular Xylem9) and IRX14, which have been genetically shown to be non-redundantly involved in the elongation of the xylan backbone. IRX9 and IRX14, alone or simultaneously, were heterologously expressed in tobacco BY2 cells, and microsomes isolated from the transgenic BY2 cells were tested for XylT activity using xylotetraose (Xyl(4)) as an acceptor and UDP-[(14)C]xylose as a donor. It was found that although microsomes with expression of IRX9 or IRX14 alone exhibited little incorporation of radiolabeled xylose, a high level of incorporation of radiolabeled xylose onto Xyl(4) was conferred by microsomes with co-expression of IRX9 and IRX14. Further analysis using fluorescent anthranilic acid-labeled xylotetraose (Xyl(4)-AA) as an acceptor revealed that up to five β-(1,4)-linked xylosyl residues were able to be transferred onto Xyl(4)-AA by microsomes with co-expression of IRX9 and IRX14. Furthermore, it was shown that xylooligomers ranging from Xyl(3)-AA to Xyl(6)-AA could all be used as acceptors for the xylosyl transfer by microsomes with co-expression of IRX9 and IRX14. Together, these findings provide the first biochemical evidence that IRX9 and IRX14 are xylosyltransferases that operate cooperatively in the elongation of the xylan backbone.     

A thermophilic endo-1,4-β-glucanase from Talaromyces emersonii CBS394.64 with broad substrate specificity and great application potentials

Thermophilic cellulases are of significant interest to the efficient conversion of plant cell wall polysaccharides into simple sugars. In this study, a thermophilic and thermostable endo-1,4-β-glucanase, TeEgl5A, was identified in the thermophilic fungus Talaromyces emersonii CBS394.64 and functionally expressed in Pichia pastoris. Purified recombinant TeEgl5A exhibits optimal activity at pH 4.5 and 90 °C. It is highly stable at 70 °C and over a broad pH range of 1.0?10.0, and shows strong resistance to most metal ions, sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS), and proteases. TeEgl5A has broad substrate specificity and exhibits high activity on substrates containing β-1,4-glycosidic bonds and β-1,3-glycosidic bonds (barley β-glucan, laminarin, lichenan, CMC-Na, carob bean gum, and birchwood xylan). Under simulated mashing conditions, addition of 60 U TeEgl5A reduced more viscosity (10.0 vs.7.6 %) than 80 U of Ultraflo XL from Novozymes. These properties make TeEgl5A a good candidate for extensive application in the detergent, textile, feed, and food industries.     

Cellulase-free xylanases from Bacillus and other microorganisms

Xylanases are used mainly in the pulp and paper industries for the pretreatment of Kraft pulp prior to bleaching to minimize use of chlorine, the conventional bleaching agent. This application has great potential as an environmentally safe method. Hydrolysis by xylanases of relocated and reprecipitated xylan on the surface of cellulose fibres formed during Kraft cooking facilitates the removal of lignin by increasing permeability to oxidising agents. Most of the xylanases reported in the literature contained significant cellulolytic activity, which make them less suitable for pulp and paper industries. The need for large quantities of xylanases which would be stable at higher temperatures and pH values and free of cellulase activity has necessitated a search for novel enzymes. We have isolated and characterised several xylanase-producing cultures, one of which (an alkalophilic Bacillus SSP-34) produced more than 100 IU ml(-1) of xylanase activity. The SSP-34 xylanases have optimum activity at 50 degrees C in a pH range 6-8, with only small amounts of cellulolytic activity (CMCase (0.4 IU ml(-1), pH 7), FPase (0.2 IU ml(-1), pH 7) and no activity at pH 9).     

Characterization of function and activity of domains A, B and C of xylanase C from Fibrobacter succinogenes S85

Xylanase C from the ruminant bacterium Fibrobacter succinogenes is comprised of two catalytic domains, A and B, and a third domain, C, of unknown function. The DNA coding for domains A and B of xylanase C were separately cloned and expressed in Escherichia coli as fusion proteins with glutathione-S:-transferase. The fusion proteins were isolated by affinity chromatography on glutathione-Sepharose 4B, cleaved with thrombin and the released xylanase C catalytic domains A and B were purified to apparent homogeneity by anion-exchange chromatography on Mono Q. Electrospray mass spectrometry provided a molecular mass of 27 818 Da (expected, 27 820 Da) for domain B. The pH and temperature optima for activity of domain B on oat spelt xylan were 5.0 and 52 degrees C, respectively. A kinetic analysis of the activity of the catalytic domain A on oat spelt xylan, birch wood xylan and xylooligomers at pH 6.5 and 37 degrees C provided data significantly different to those obtained previously with a protease-derived form of the enzyme [Zhu et al. (1994) J. Bacteriol. 176, 3885-3894]. The isolated domain A was more active on barley-glucan than the protease-derived form and its affinity for birch wood xylan was enhanced resulting in greater overall catalytic efficiency as reflected by k(cat)/K:(M) values. Likewise, significant differences in the Michaelis-Menten parameters K:(M), k(cat) and k(cat)/K:(M) were obtained with domain B compared with values previously reported with this domain attached to domain C. In general, the presence of domain C appeared to decrease the overall efficiency of domain B 7- and 36-fold with birch wood xylan and xylopentaose as substrates, respectively, as reflected by values of k(cat)/K:(M). The removal of domain C also affected the mode of action of domain B such that it more closely resembled that of catalytic domain A. However, no change in either pH and temperature optima or stability were found with domain B compared with the combined domains B and C. The function of domain C remains unknown, but hydrophobic cluster analysis indicated that it may belong to a class of dockerin domains involved in the protein-protein interactions of cellulolytic and xylanolytic complexes.