Cortisol response of wild ungulates to trauma situations: hunting is not necessarily the worst stressor

Animal welfare concerns are becoming a central issue in wildlife management and conservation. Thus, we investigated stress response of wild ungulates to potentially traumatic situations (shooting injuries, vehicle collisions, entanglement, injuries or diseases) and hunting methods (stalking, battues and hunts with dogs) by means of serum cortisol concentrations from blood collected from killed animals. Cortisol levels in roe deer ranged below and in wild boar above levels for moose, red deer and fallow deer (hence, pooled as a group “deer”). Apart from species, cortisol concentration in trauma situations was mainly explained by trauma type and presence of disturbance after the trauma event. Effect of trauma type differed significantly for “deer”, with animals caught in fences and suffering vehicle collisions experiencing higher cortisol levels than animals injured by shooting. Differences between hunting methods were observed in the cervids (“deer” and roe deer), with stalking leading to lower cortisol levels than hunts with dogs (both groups) and battues (roe deer). Events both before and after the shot, such as duration of pursuit prior to shooting, location of injury, trauma length and presence of disturbance after the shot were relevant for cortisol levels in hunted cervids. Our results indicate that search teams tracking and euthanising wounded animals should behave in a calm way to minimise disturbance. Still, it is important to acknowledge that many situations described in the literature, i.e. reindeer handling, roe deer captures and red deer yarding, seem even more stressful, beside vehicle collisions, than most hunting methods.     

Do intensive drive hunts affect wild boar (Sus scrofa) spatial behaviour in Italy? Some evidences and management implications

Wild boar have been increasing in numbers all over Western Europe in the last 30 years. The species is a major pest for agriculture, but it has a high value as a game species, and in Italy, as in several other countries, it is traditionally hunted in drive hunts by hunting teams with several dogs. This hunting method can have disruptive effects on the demography and spatial behaviour of wild boar, especially family groups. We conducted a 2-year study (2003 and 2004) to determine the effects of drive hunt disturbance on the spatial behaviour of wild boar family groups in the Northern Apennines (central Italy). Twenty wild boar belonging to ten family groups were ear tagged with a radio device. We located resting sites daily and used intensive tracking sessions during drive hunts. Three seasons were determined: pre-hunting, hunting and post-hunting. A general pattern of increased spatial instability during the hunting season was shown. Resting ranges were larger, and resting sites were more interspersed. Distances between consecutive resting sites were greater during the hunting season and, especially, on hunting days. The displacement of family groups caused by drive hunts was generally short lived except for those groups that were repeatedly hunted and so abandoned their pre-hunt (native) range. During drive hunts, wild boar showed a moderate tolerance to hunting disturbance, and only family groups which were directly chased by dogs escaped or altered their behaviour. The response of wild boar to hunting disturbance seemed to be highly related to the degree of hunting pressure combined with individual variability. The impact on wild boar behaviour should be reduced, above all by avoiding repeated hunts in the same areas within a short period and by employing well-trained hounds.     

Decay of sperm obtained from epididymes of wild ruminants depending on postmortem time

We have carried out a study on the effect of postmortem time (PT) in some characteristics of epididymal sperm salvaged from hunted Iberian red deer and roe deer. Testis were collected, identified, refrigerated down to 5 degrees C, and sent to our laboratory by the wardens of the hunting reserves. This way, samples were delivered at different times postmortem. Sperm were extracted from the cauda epididymis by means of cuts. Analyzed parameters were: osmolality, pH, motility-both subjectively and with CASA, HOS test reactivity, acrosomal status and viability (assessed with propidium iodide). Osmolality and pH rose with prolonged postmortem time, possibly due to tissue decomposition. Most sperm quality parameters negatively correlated with PT. Besides, when comparing PT classes (groups of 24 h for red deer and 30 h for roe deer), we could appreciate that motility was more affected by PT than other quality variables. Progressive motility was especially impaired. We also classified the samples in high, medium and low quality for each PT group (considering progressive motility, intact acrosomes and reactivity to the HOS test), and it was clear that after 2 days the number of high quality samples was testimonial, and after several days, we almost found only low quality samples. In conclusion, epididymal sperm from Iberian red deer and roe deer undergo a decrease of quality with PT, but it could stay acceptable within many hours postmortem. There are implications for wildlife conservation programs, as epididymal sperm is a good source of germplasm. If valuable animals die and it is not possible to process their sperm immediately, it may still be possible to obtain viable spermatozoa many hours later.     

Fox-hunting in England and Wales: its contribution to the management of woodland and other habitats

Hunting foxes with hounds has been a countryside pursuit in Britain since the 17th Century, but its effect nationally on habitat management is little understood by the general public. A survey questionnaire was distributed to 163 mounted fox hunts of England and Wales to quantify their management practices in woodland and other habitat. Ninety-two hunts (56%), covering 75,514 km², returned details on woodland management motivated by the improvement of their sport. The management details were verified via on-site visits for a sample of 200 woodlands. Following verification, the area of woodlands containing the management was conservatively estimated at 24,053 (±2241) ha, comprising 5.9% of woodland area within the whole of the area hunted by the 92 hunts. Management techniques included: tree planting, coppicing, felling, ride and perimeter management. A case study in five hunt countries in southern England examined, through the use of botanical survey and butterfly counts, the consequences of the hunt management on woodland ground flora and butterflies. Managed areas had, within the last 5 years, been coppiced and rides had been cleared. Vegetation cover in managed and unmanaged sites averaged 86% and 64%, respectively, and managed areas held on average 4 more plant species and a higher plant diversity than unmanaged areas (Shannon index of diversity: 2.25 vs. 1.95). Both the average number of butterfly species (2.2 vs. 0.3) and individuals counted (4.6 vs. 0.3) were higher in the managed than unmanaged sites.     

Establishing baseline values of parameters potentially indicative of chronic stress in red deer (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Cervus elaphus</Emphasis>) from different habitats in western Germany

The use of habitats by wild animals is commonly assumed to be decreasing due to human activities, such as tourism or the installation and use of wind-energy plants. These anthropogenic interferences may subject animals to chronic stress. To be able to objectively characterise the effects on animal populations or on individual animals, the collection of data that might be suitable to monitor such chronic stress is required. In this study of hunted red deer, we report data that are related to adrenal activity and are not affected by the acute stress induced by hunting. Adrenal glands and samples from ileal digesta were collected from 75 hunted deer from seven different habitats in the German Rhineland. The adrenal glands were evaluated histomorphometrically; in the digesta, the concentration of cortisol metabolites, i.e. of 11,17-dioxoandrostanes (11,17-DOA), was measured. Digesta were also examined for parasites. Animals were grouped according to age, sex, habitat, and hunting method. Animals were infected with gastrointestinal helminths and lungworms; examination for liver flukes was negative. Significant differences were not established among the different groups for any of the recorded parameters. For sex, a tendency (P=0.11) towards higher DOA levels was observed in female deer when compared to male deer. The variability of the parameters together with the lack of identifiable influences of hunting indicates that chronic stress might indeed have been a relevant factor. However, none of the parameters analysed can presently be validly used to evaluate habitat quality for red deer since physiological stressors cannot be differentiated.     

Reproductive biology of female Amazonian brocket deer in northeastern Peru

The aim of this study was to provide information on the reproductive biology of brocket deer. Hence, we analyzed female reproductive tracts collected by rural hunters from 1991 to 1998 in the Tamshiyacu-Tahuayo Communal Reserve, northeastern Peruvian Amazon. We characterized the basic reproductive biology of brocket deer, analyzed whether the distributions of conceptions and births are aseasonal, and compared their reproductive productivity in two different areas subject to heavy and slight hunting pressures, respectively. We found that: (1) red and gray brocket deer did not differ in ovulation, fertilization, and pregnancy rates; (2) average number of fetuses per birth was 1.2 for red brocket deer and one for gray brocket deer; (3) sex of fetuses suggests a male biased sex ratio for both species; (4) neither species shows reproductive seasonality; and (5) gross productivity does not differ between heavily and slightly hunted areas. Our results indicate that brocket deer exhibit reproductive characteristics similar to their conspecifics in other parts of their native distribution range.     

Eurasian lynx hunting red deer: is there an influence of a winter enclosure system?

As in several Central European areas, in the Bohemian Forest Ecosystem (Germany and the Czech Republic), fenced feeding enclosures are used for the winter management of red deer (Cervus elaphus), which is an important component of the Eurasian lynx’s (Lynx lynx) winter diet. Using GPS telemetry data, we tested whether (1) lynx hunted red deer mainly selecting for high prey densities and environmental characteristics like a good level of habitat heterogeneity, independently of the enclosures’ presence; (2) enclosures attracted lynx and (3) positively influenced their predation on red deer, being predictable and abundant prey sources throughout the winter; or (4) extremely high deer densities inside the enclosures rather negatively influenced lynx predation on this species. We first compared lynx space usage and predation on red deer inside and outside the enclosures. Then, we investigated the effects of the environment, prey densities and the enclosure distance for the area outside of enclosures. Prey densities positively influenced lynx space usage, whilst the probability of predation on red deer was highest at medium to low red deer densities. Habitat heterogeneity and terrain ruggedness influenced both lynx space usage and probability of predation on red deer. Regarding the effect of enclosures, the ratio “area used during night vs. daytime” was larger by a factor of 2 inside compared to outside enclosures, and the probability of predation on red deer was three times higher inside rather than outside of enclosures; however, these differences were not statistically significant, suggesting that the influence of the enclosures is not very pronounced.     

Evaluating Indirect Effects of Hunting on Mule Deer Spatial Behavior

Mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) are widely hunted throughout western North America and are experiencing population declines across much of their range. Consequently, understanding the direct and indirect effects of hunting is important for management of mule deer populations. Managers can influence deer mortality rates through changes in hunting season length or authorized tag numbers. Little is known, however, about how hunting can affect site fidelity patterns and subsequent habitat use and movement patterns of mule deer. Understanding these patterns is especially important for adult females because changes in behavior may influence their ability to acquire resources and ultimately affect their productivity. Between 2008 and 2013, we obtained global positioning system locations for 42 adult female deer at the Starkey Experimental Forest and Range in northeast Oregon, USA, during 5-day control and treatment periods in which hunters were absent (pre-hunt), present but not actively hunting (scout and post-hunt), and actively hunting male mule deer (hunt) on the landscape. We estimated summer home ranges and 5-day use areas during pre-hunt and hunt periods and calculated overlap metrics across home ranges and use areas to assess site fidelity within and across years. We used step selection functions to evaluate whether female mule deer responded to human hunters by adjusting fine-scale habitat selection and movement patterns during the hunting season compared to the pre-hunt period. Mule deer maintained site fidelity despite disturbance by hunters with 72 ± 4% (SE) within-year overlap between summer home ranges and hunt use areas and 54 ± 7% inter-annual overlap among pre-hunt use areas and 56 ± 7% among hunt use areas. Mule deer diurnal movement rates, when hunters are active on the landscape, were higher during the hunting period versus pre-hunt or scout periods. In contrast, nocturnal movement rates, when hunters are inactive on the landscape, were similar between hunting and non-hunting periods. Additionally, during the hunt, female mule deer hourly movements increased in areas with high greenness values, indicating that mule deer spent less time in areas with more vegetative productivity. Female mule deer maintained consistent habitat selection patterns before and during hunts, selecting areas that offered more forest canopy cover and high levels of vegetative productivity. Our results indicate that deer at Starkey are adopting behavioral strategies in response to hunters by increasing their movement rates and selecting habitat in well-established ranges. Therefore, considering site fidelity behavior in management planning could provide important information about the spatial behavior of animals and potential energetic costs incurred, especially by non-target animals during hunting season. © 2020 The Wildlife Society.     

Autumn-winter diet overlap of fallow, red, and roe deer in forest ecosystems, Southern Poland

The wild population of fallow deer in Central Europe has grown considerably over the last decade. However, information on feeding habits of this alien species in relation to the indigenous red deer or roe deer, in areas of their co-occurrence, is scarce. A prevailing view maintains that their food-niches are distinct, although direct comparative studies have not been carried out. Therefore, the aim of the research was to compare the diets of fallow, red, and roe deer feeding in the same habitat. Research was based on the rumen contents of 242 animals hunted in the autumn-winter season in the forests of Southern Poland. The analyses demonstrated that fallow deer are moderate grazers in such conditions and eat more graminoids in comparison to red or roe deer (36.4% vs. 16.1% or 5.5%, respectively). On the other hand, it feeds on less browse (17.2% vs. 41.4%) or dwarf shrubs (8.4% vs. 19.0%) than red deer, and on less bramble (10.9% vs. 34.6%) or forbs (4.0% vs. 7.6%) in comparison to roe deer (P=0.05). Although the diets of the three deer species differ in terms of the proportion of each food type in their diet, overlapping of their food-niches is high (52.6%).     

Comparison of Effects of Shed Antler Hunting and Helicopter Surveys on Ungulate Movements and Space Use

Shed antler hunting (i.e., collecting cast cervid antlers) has increased in popularity during the past decade, but little is known about how this recreational activity affects ungulate movements and space use. We placed geographic positioning system (GPS)-collars on 133 female and male bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis), bison (Bison bison), and mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) to quantify their movements and space use during shed antler hunts compared with those behaviors during helicopter surveys in Utah, USA, from 2012 to 2015. For each species, we calculated means and 95% confidence intervals for distance moved during 90-minute segments (16 points/day) pre-event (control, 7 consecutive days prior to event), event (1–2 days), and post-event (7 consecutive days after event) for shed antler hunts and helicopter surveys. We also compared use of space for each species during these events. Female bighorn sheep did not increase distance moved or substantially change space use during shed antler hunts and helicopter surveys. Male bighorn sheep increased distance moved 41% on average during shed antler hunts and by 2.02 times during helicopter surveys but did not change space use during those events. Female bison increased distance moved 15% on average during shed antler hunts and 30% during helicopter surveys. Mule deer increased distance moved and altered space use the most during shed antler hunts; females increased distance moved 97%, and 54% of females moved a mean distance of 742 ± 642 (SD) m (range = 9–3,778 m) outside of their home ranges during those hunts for a mean of 9.2 ± 9.4 hours (range = 1.5 to 41 hr). Male mule deer increased distance moved by 2.10 times on average during shed antler hunts, and 82% of males moved a mean distance of 1,264 ± 732 m (range = 131–3,637 m) outside of their home ranges during those hunts for a mean of 12.6 ± 7.6 hours (range = 4.5–33 hr). Our results provide timely information about how legal shed antler hunting affects movements and space use of female and male ungulates, especially mule deer, and can guide the conservation of ungulate populations and their habitat. © 2021 The Wildlife Society.     

Copper residues in meat from wild artiodactyls hunted with two types of rifle bullets manufactured from copper

Copper content in muscle and the presence of bullet fragments were assessed in samples from red deer (Cervus elaphus), roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), fallow deer (Dama dama) and wild boar (Sus scrofa) (total of 46 animals) which had been hunted with two types of solid copper bullets. Also, the release of copper from bullets or fragments remaining in muscle was tested. For bullet type “B”, a fragment was detected in only 1 out of 34 carcasses whereas for type “A”, fragments were detected in all 12 carcasses, with up to 24 fragments (maximum size, 5?×?7?×?2 mm). Median copper concentrations around the shot wound (0–30 mm distance) were 1.25 and 1.77 mg/kg fresh weight for bullet types B and A, respectively, and thus in the expected range for venison. Around bullet fragments that had remained in muscles, the copper content increased significantly. In roe deer longissimus muscle that had been exposed for 7 days at +7 °C to bullets of type B, up to 1,000 mg/kg copper (fresh weight) was found in a distance of 0–2 mm. However, in a distance of 10–20 mm, maximum copper contents were <10 mg/kg fresh weight. Bullet fragments can constitute physical hazards and will release copper under acidic conditions as those prevailing in meat. Removal of bullet fragments prior to culinary preparation should ensure that a recommended dietary copper intake of 1.25 mg per adult consumer per day is not exceeded. From a food hygiene viewpoint, non-fragmenting bullets seem to be preferable.     

Movement pattern of red deer during drive hunts in Sweden

We investigated the movement pattern of GPS-collared red deer (Cervus elaphus) during drive hunts with loose dogs. In 46 flights of hinds (N?=?9), the median flight distance was 2.5 km (range 0.4–15.0). In 28 % of the flights, the hind left its home range. Average time before returning to home range was 23 h (range 2–88). Hinds in a less forested site left their home ranges more often, fled longer distances, moved at higher speed, and returned later than hinds in a homogenous forest. Speed of movement increased with number of hunts in the less forested site. In eight flights of stags (N?=?4), the median flight distance was 5.1 km (range 2.2–13.3). The start of hunting season seemed to trigger stags’ departure to their wintering areas. Knowledge of reactions to disturbance can aid game management to choose hunting methods and dogs that cause less disturbance but may also be used to deter deer from areas where they damage crops and forest plantations.     

Official Hunting Patterns, and Trends in the Proportions of Sika (

Records of official deer control operations in the Kaweka Range between 1958 and 1988 have been used to describe the pattern of official hunting, to indicate changes in hunting efficiency, and to show trends in the proportions of sika and red deer in sympatric populations. The pattern of hunting largely reflected wild animal control priorities, and to some extent the resources available. Whereas hunting effort was concentrated in Block 1 (of three) during the 1960s to protect catchment values, changes in the rationale for wild animal control and the efforts of commercial and recreational hunters in the more accessible areas led to a more even spread of the hunting effort from the early 1970s. Hunting efficiency also varied between the three h unting blocks, probably reflecting differences in the ease with which particular habitats could be hunted. A decline in hunting efficiency over the study period was interpreted as an overall decrease in the density of the deer population. The proportion of sika among the deer shot in the Kaweka Range has increased steadily from about 10-20% in the early 1960s to 70% in 1987-88. A competitive advantage over red deer because of their different digestive physiology is suggested as the main reason. The most rapid increases in the proportion of sika were associated with two Peaks in commercial venison and live-capture operations that concentrated on red deer, indicating that commercial hunting has also been a factor. It is likely that sika will continue icreasing in proportion to red deer in areas already inhabited. In addition, sika will probably continue to disperse into new areas as they competitively displace red deer.     

Suppression of Regeneration in New Zealand Mountain Beech Forests is Dependent on Species of Introduced Deer

We compared the impacts on forest regeneration of introduced sika (Cervus nippon) and red (Cervus elaphus) deer in New Zealand. Plot data were used to compare mountain beech (Nothofagus solandri var. cliffortioides) regeneration between a region with sika deer, and four regions without sika deer. All regions surveyed had red deer present. In the region where sika deer had been present for more than a decade, there was evidence of poor mountain beech seedling regeneration. In the four regions without sika deer, there was evidence of a strong regenerative response at stands with low occupancy by trees. When compared to larger deer species, sika deer have a digestive morphology allowing greater dietary versatility, which may result in them impeding forest regeneration where red deer do not. In contrast to mountain beech, some small-leaved shrub species may have been competitively advantaged by intensive browsing from sika deer. This is contra to a current view that small-leaved shrub species with interlacing branches were able to tolerate browsing from extinct ratite birds, but not introduced deer. Sika deer have been introduced into countries where other deer species are indigenous, such as Canada, Denmark, Great Britain, Czech Republic, Ireland and the United States of America. Because of their dietary advantage, sika deer may have a greater potential to impede forest regeneration and competitively exclude larger deer species, particularly at low basal area sites where impacts on tree regeneration are likely to be greatest.     

Experiences in deer sperm cryopreservation under practical conditions--a pilot study

The genetic potential of the red and fallow deer populations in Hungary is well known. Conserving the variability in this excellent genetic material for game preservation is one of our most important task. The aim of the present pilot study was to test the logistical steps of a sperm processing and storing system in which deer sperm can be stored at a level that meets quality standards accepted for domestic animals. Moreover, two different semen extenders, commercially used for freezing bull semen, were compared from the viewpoint of applicability to freeze fallow deer sperm. Sperm was collected from epididymes of eight red stags (Cervus elaphus hippelaphus) and six fallow bucks (Dama dama) during the rutting season. Red deer samples were washed in Triladyl extender, while fallow deer samples were split and processed in Triladyl or Bioxcell extender. In the samples, which had a shorter time interval between the death of the animal and the sperm collection, the percentage of viable spermatozoa with intact acrosome was typically higher.     

Reduction and Maintenance of a White-Tailed Deer Herd in Central Massachusetts

Abstract: Controlled public hunts have been used in a variety of settings to reduce overabundant white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) herds. We present the results of a large-scale (160 km²) controlled hunt at Quabbin Reservation (QR) in central Massachusetts, USA. The QR was divided into 5 hunt zones. Hunting was initiated in each zone from 1991 to 1994 and continued through 2004. The management goal was to achieve posthunt deer densities of4 deer/km². Initial estimated deer densities in each zone ranged from 11.4 deer/km² to 27.6 deer/km². The management goals were reached in each zone after 2-4 years of hunting. Posthunt populations were maintained at or below the goal even though total hunter effort was reduced. Hunters were not required to harvest antlerless deer, but antlerless deer comprised 55-83% of the harvest each year. We simulated the effects of 5 years without hunting on deer populations. The simulated deer population exceeded management goals after 2 years. Our results demonstrate that controlled public deer hunts can effectively reduce deer populations and maintain them at desired levels over large areas with minimal hunter restrictions. Managers should prepare stakeholders during the hunt planning process for the need to continue overall harvest rates of >30% during the maintenance phase of a deer management program.     

Elaphostrongylus cervi in a population of red deer (Cervus elaphus) and evidence of cerebrospinal nematodiasis in small ruminants in the province of Varese, Italy

Thirty-one faecal samples were collected from red deer in the northern area of Varese, in the Italian region of Lombardy, between August and October 2008. The animals had either been hunted or accidently killed. Examination for internal parasites showed a prevalence of 45.2% for Elaphostrongylus cervi larvae and species identification was confirmed by polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Ninety-seven faecal samples were also collected from two goat flocks grazing in the same area between December 2007 and May 2008. These showed a prevalence of 74.7% for lungworms. Furthermore, the central nervous systems from five goats and one sheep from this area with a history of neurologically related lameness were examined. Histopathology confirmed E. cervi cerebro-spinal nematodiasis in five cases out of six. This study demonstrates E. cervi transmission from wild to domestic ruminants when the animals graze in the same area, and the possible occurrence of clinical disease in infected goats and sheep associated with high prevalence in deer.     

Modoc-like virus isolated from wild deer mice (Peromyscus maniculatus) in Alberta

Small mammals were trapped in northeastern Alberta, Canada during 1976. Blood samples from these animals were tested for virus by inoculation of suckling mice. Blood clots from two deer mice yielded isolates of the same virus. The virus was related antigenically to a number of flaviviruses which have been isolated from mammals in Central America and North America and was related most closely to Modoc virus. Physical, chemical, and biological properties of the virus were similar also to those of Modoc virus. It did not produce illness or death in deer mice inoculated in the laboratory. Neutralization tests indicated that 1/38 (3%) red squirrels (Tamiasciurus hudsonicus), 3/35 (9%) least chipmunks (Eutamius minimus), 13/109 (12%) deer mice, and 3/50 (6%) humans were infected naturally. This is the first reported evidence of infection of red squirrels and chipmunks with a Modoc-like virus. These data extend the range of Modoc-like viruses northward by 1,500 km and comprise the first isolate from mammals in the boreal forest of Canada.     

Bovine virus diarrhea virus in free-living deer from Denmark

Free-living deer are suggested as a possible source of infection of cattle with bovine virus diarrhea (BVD) virus. To examine this hypothesis blood samples from 476 free-living deer were collected during two different periods and tested for BVD virus and antibody in Denmark. In 1995-96, 207 animals were tested. These included 149 roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), 29 fallow deer (Dama dama), 20 red deer (Cervus elaphus) and one sika deer (Cervus sika). For the remaining eight animals no species information was available. In 1998-99, 269 animals were tested including 212 roe deer and 57 red deer. The animals were selected from areas with a relatively high prevalence of cattle herds with a BVD persistent infection status in 1997 and 1998. All 207 samples from 1995-96 were found antibody-negative except two samples from red deer. Only 158 of the 207 samples were tested for virus and were all found negative. Of the 269 samples from 1998-99 all but one were antibody negative. The positive sample was from a red deer. All samples were virus-negative. It appears that BVD infection does not occur in roe deer in Denmark. The presence of antibody in a few red deer from various districts in Jutland probably results from cattle to deer transmission, rather than spread among deer. Hence, the possibility of free-living deer as a source of infection for cattle in Denmark seems to be remote.