Investigating a simplified method for noninvasive genetic sampling in East African mammals using silica dried scat swabs

Swabbing scat has proved to be an effective noninvasive method to collect DNA from mammals in the field. Previously, this method has relied on preservative liquids or freezing to preserve the DNA collected on swabs. In this study, we determine the effectiveness of using silica to simply dry the swab in field as an alternative way to prevent DNA degredation. Four species were included in the study; reticulated giraffe, impala, fringe‐eared oryx, and lion. Swabs were taken at multiple time points for giraffe and impala scat samples, with the lion and oryx sampled opportunistically. Mitochondrial DNA was successfully amplified and sequenced from scat swabs from all species; however, effectiveness varied between species, with 81.8% amplification success rate from swabs taken from impala scat compared to 25% amplification success rate in giraffe. This variation in success rate was overcome by taking multiple swabs, thus increasing the probability of a successful amplification. The true merit of this method is in its simplicity and cheapness; no preservative liquids were required to be brought into the field, at no stage in the 2 weeks of field sampling were samples frozen, and no commercial kits were used for DNA extraction.     

Notes on the biology of the giraffe

During a 3-year study in Nairobi National Park, 1965–1968, 250 giraffe were identified by their neck markings. The herd structure of these animals was studied, including the relationships between particular individuals. Population information collected included the times of calving, the growth and longevity of giraffe, their reproductive potential, the age structure of the population and its density. Immigration, emigration and home range studies were completed with the help of radio telemetry equipment. The effect of giraffe on the vegetation and the possibility of giraffe surviving without free water are discussed.     

THE GIRAFFE OF NAIROBI NATIONAL PARK: HOME RANGE, SEX RATIOS, THE HERD, AND FOOD

The giraffe of Nairobi National Park, Kenya have been studied for one year. Each animal seen has been photographed from the left side and the pattern on the neck used to recognize each individual. While the pattern may become darker with age, it does not significantly change in detail even over many years. At present 65 adult male, 72 adult female and 30 immature giraffe can be recognized. Movements of individuals are described as well as associations with other individuals. The 3ex ratio of the giraffe is discussed in relation to that found in the plains ungulates. The population of giraffe in the Park is considered to be particularly high and the relation of giraffe to the vegetation is discussed briefly.     

Serum concentrations of amino acids,fatty acids,lipoproteins, vitamins A and E,and minerals in apparently healthy,free‐ranging southern giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis giraffe)

This pilot project began establishing a nutritional profile for free‐ranging giraffe. The results will be used as a tool to begin assessing the nutritional status of captive giraffe. In October 2004 serum samples were collected opportunistically from seven adult and 17 sub‐adult giraffe being anesthetized for different studies. Seventeen animals were from Double Drift Game Reserve and seven animals were from Kariega Private Game Reserve. The serum samples were analyzed for circulating concentrations of amino acids, fatty acids, lipoproteins, vitamins, and minerals. Information from 15 serum samples collected from anesthetized giraffe in Kruger National Park during April and August 2003 was included in the calcium and phosphorus concentration data. No significant differences were identified between genders. Significant differences between locations were identified for concentrations of certain amino acids, fatty acids, and lipoproteins. Differences between locations are likely due to different nutrient concentrations of foods and possibly the result of different animal densities forcing different food choices among locations. This pilot project may expand to include changes in circulating nutrient concentrations for free‐ranging giraffe as is influenced by other locations, seasonal food availability, and different giraffe subspecies. Zoo Biol 0:1–13, 2007. © 2006 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Giraffe restraint,habituation, and desensitization at the Cheyenne Mountain Zoo

The giraffe restraint device manufactured at the Cheyenne Mountain Zoo has the capability to fully support the weight of an immobilized adult giraffe in an upright posture and allow physical restraint of giraffe. The unit has been used for either chemical or physical restraint 74 times, in 22 months, on seven different adult giraffe, without animal or personnel injuries. Habituation and desensitization of the giraffe are critical prerequisites for the successful use of the giraffe restraint device. Yohimbine effectively reversed the effects of xylazine sedation of giraffe. A drug combination of detomidine and azaperone offers promise as an alternative to either physical restraint or immobilization of giraffe for selected clinical and investigative procedures. Using the restraint device it has been possible to perform tuberculin testing, venipuncture, vaginal examination, rectal palpation, rectal ultrasound, cervical catheterization, hoof-trimming, and placement of a hoof block on awake, habituated, and desensitized giraffe.     

A review of the social behaviour of the giraffe Giraffa camelopardalis: a misunderstood but socially complex species

1. Until around 2000, giraffe Giraffa camelopardalis were believed to have no social structure. Despite a resurgence of interest in giraffe behaviour in around 2010, most studies are of isolated populations, making it difficult to draw general conclusions. Although it is now well established that giraffe social organisation is non-random, there is little consensus as to what influences preferred and avoided associations or the underpinning mechanisms.
2. We test two hypotheses: first, giraffe have a complex cooperative social system, exhibited by 1) stable groups of females, 2) offspring that stay in their natal group for part or all of their lives, 3) support by non-mothers in rearing young, and 4) non-reproductive females in the group; and second, giraffe form matrilineal societies, evidenced by 1) male dispersal, 2) female philopatry, 3) assistance in raising or protecting offspring, and 4) individual benefits gained from social foraging.
3. We reviewed 404 papers on giraffe behaviour and social organisation; captive studies were included where they supplemented information from free-living populations.
4. We show that giraffe exhibit many of the features typical of mammals with complex cooperative social systems and matrilineal societies. However, the social complexity hypothesis posits that such species also require complex communication systems to regulate interactions and relations among group members; giraffe communication systems are poorly understood.
5. Quantifying the fitness and survival benefits of the giraffe’s social organisation is necessary to ensure its long-term survival. Giraffe numbers have declined by 40% since 1985, they have been declared extinct in seven (possibly nine) countries and are listed as Vulnerable by the International Union for Conservation of Nature. We identify research areas that will advance our understanding of giraffe behaviour and conservation requirements.

     

Home range and seasonal movements of Giraffa camelopardalis angolensis in the northern Namib Desert

Estimates of home range size of giraffe in the northern Namib Desert were on average larger than those in other populations. In particular, the largest individual home range of any giraffe bull (1950 km²) was recorded – correlated with low population density, reduced forage density and increased searching for receptive cows. The predominant pattern of movement was linear, along the riparian environments, however, large-scale irregular movements into tributaries and other areas were also recorded. Small-scale movements by bulls into the mountains above the Hoarusib River as well as by cows into the northern tributaries of the Hoanib River were observed. Seasonal movements of giraffe were not as distinctive as those in other giraffe populations. Small-scale habitat segregation was observed in the Hoarusib River study area with giraffe cows foraging only in the Gomatum River during the hot-dry season. The first ever study of GPS satellite collared giraffe provided some of the highest resolution data on giraffe movements to date, including strong biphasic movement behaviour of giraffe over 24-h periods.     

Rothschild’s giraffe Giraffa camelopardalis rothschildi (Linnaeus, 1758) in East Africa: A review of population trends,taxonomy and conservation status

Giraffe populations have suffered a 40% decline in the past thirty years, making them a new priority for conservation and there are considerable uncertainty and disagreement over the taxonomic classification of giraffes. Consequently, there has never been a more critical time to fully understand the global population size and distribution of all giraffe subspecies. The Rothschild's giraffe Giraffa camelopardalis rothschildi (Linnaeus, 1758) is arguably one of the most imperilled giraffe subspecies. Once widespread across southern Sudan, Uganda and Kenya, the Rothschild's giraffe is now confined to a few, isolated and enclosed populations throughout Kenya and Uganda, with only one natural population remaining. Information about Rothschild's giraffe population size, distribution, and conservation history is patchy, and confined to recondite or inaccessible resources. Here, I present a review of taxonomy, distribution, conservation status and population size of the Rothschild's giraffe and present the most recent estimate of population sizes based on direct census data. Although the Latin name affixed to Rothschild's giraffe is subject to discussion, continued reference to this subspecies as G. c. rothschildi is strongly recommended.     

Geoffroy's Giraffe: The Hagiography of a Charismatic Mammal

In 1826, the Pasha of Egypt offeredto the King Charles X an unusual present: aliving giraffe. While offering remarkableanimals was a common practice among monarchs,the choice of a giraffe was somewhatextraordinary since it was the firstrepresentative of its kind to set foot inFrance. The Royal Menagerie of the ParisMuséum national d'histoire naturelle wasasked to oversee the transportation of thisprecious mammal and Étienne GeoffroySaint-Hilaire, one of its professors, was sentto Marseilles to fetch it on foot all the wayback to the capital. The whereabouts of thisexotic procession stirred passions throughoutthe country, generating a fashion craze ``à la girafe.'The so-called Pasha's giraffe, King's giraffeor French giraffe is also – and perhaps moreimportantly – Geoffroy's giraffe. The giraffeepisode is representative of Geoffroy's largerscientific career. Because of its Egyptianflavor, its adventurous aspect, its politicaland diplomatic undertones, as well as thepopular attention and educational opportunitiesit afforded, that mission was ideally suitedfor the flamboyant naturalist. So close werethe animal's and the French zoologist's fates,that they passed away a couple months apart andboth fell into relative oblivion. But evendead and dissected, Geoffroy's giraffe couldnot easily be dissociated from its companion. The afterlife of its ``saintly' relics mirrorsthe popular and scholarly revival ofÉtienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, portrayedby some as a forgotten ``prophet.'     

Introduction of giraffe changes acacia distribution in a South African savanna

Large mammal herbivores can have significant effects on the structure and composition of plant communities. We studied the impacts of an introduced giraffe population on Acacia species at Ithala Game Reserve in South Africa. Browse intensity and Acacia mortality were assessed in field transects, and in road transects covering the reserve road network. Several Acacia species occurring in high‐density giraffe areas had high levels of mortality. Populations of Acacia davyi were extinct in areas accessible to giraffe. Most A. caffra trees within giraffe browse height were dead and A. karroo, the most common species, was also heavily affected. Some species, including A. tortilis, showed no or very low mortality attributable to giraffe browsing. Healthy populations of sensitive species occurred in areas within, and adjacent to, the reserve in areas with low or no giraffe browsing. Areas too steep for giraffe access formed spatial refuges for these trees. The differential mortality that is occurring as a consequence of giraffe browsing is altering species composition and species distribution in this savanna landscape.     

Assessment of three indigenous South African herbivores as potential reservoirs and vectors of antibiotic-resistant <Emphasis Type="Italic">Escherichia coli</Emphasis>

Due to limited data available on the presence of antibiotic-resistant (ABR) bacteria in faeces of wild herbivores in South Africa, this study analysed resistance patterns for Escherichia coli isolates from wildebeest, zebra and giraffe in addition to pet and farm pig faeces. Total and faecal coliforms and E. coli were quantified in faecal matter using a most probable number (MPN) guideline procedure. Antibiotic resistance profiles against 12 selected antibiotics representing seven classes were determined for 30 randomly selected E. coli isolates from each animal using the European Committee on Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing (EUCAST) disk diffusion procedure. While log₁₀ MPN values per gram of animal faeces for total/faecal coliforms ranged from 4.51/4.11 to 5.70/5.50, the E. coli MPN values were in a range of 3.43–5.14. The proportion of ABR E. coli isolates ranged from 43% (giraffe) to 93% (zebra). About 47% of E. coli isolates from zebra faeces were categorized as multidrug-resistant (MDR), while for wildebeest and giraffe, no MDR isolates were detected. In comparison, 10% of E. coli isolates from pet pig and about 7% from farm pig faeces were categorized as MDR. Although most MDR isolates were resistant to at least one β-lactam antibiotic, only one MDR isolate from farm pig faeces was resistant to both norfloxacin and ciprofloxacin, the two fluoroquinolones tested. However, no resistance was detected to the tested carbapenems and tigecycline. The results of this study indicate that indigenous South African herbivores may serve as potential reservoirs and vectors for the dissemination of ABR E. coli strains.     

Updated geographic range maps for giraffe,Giraffa spp., throughout sub‐Saharan Africa,and implications of changing distributions for conservation

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Gazing at a giraffe gyroscope: where are we going?

Giraffe are popular animals to watch while on wildlife safaris, and feature prominently in zoos, advertisements, toys and cartoons. Yet, until recently, few field studies have focused on giraffe. We introduce this giraffe topic issue with a review essay that explores five primary questions: How many (sub) species of giraffe exist? What are the dynamics of giraffe herds? How do giraffe communicate? What is the role of sexual selection in giraffe reproduction? How many giraffe reside in Africa? A confluence of causes has produced drastic declines in giraffe population numbers in Africa, and we conclude that guiding giraffe conservation plans depends upon evaluation of the five key quandaries that we pose.     

Genetic structure of two populations of the Namibian giraffe,Giraffa camelopardalis angolensis

Two geographically distinct populations of giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis) were sampled for this study, the northern Namib Desert and Etosha National Park. Population genetic parameters and relationships within subpopulations were estimated to better understand the genetic architecture of this isolated subspecies. Gene flow between the geographically separated populations can be attributed to recent translocation of giraffe between the two populations. Inbreeding estimates in the six subpopulations studied were low though we found evidence that genetic drift may be affecting the genetic diversity of the isolated populations in northern Namibia. Population dynamics of the sampling locations was inferred with relationship coefficient analyses. Recent molecular systematics of the Namibian giraffe populations indicates that they are distinct from the subspecies Giraffa camelopardalis giraffa and classified as G. c. angolensis. Based on genetic analyses, these giraffe populations of northern Namibia, the desert‐dwelling giraffe and those protected in Etosha National Park, are a distinct subspecies from that previously assumed; thus we add data on G. c. angolensis to our scientific knowledge of this giraffe of southern Africa.     

Episodic Molecular Evolution of Pituitary Growth Hormone in Cetartiodactyla

The sequence of growth hormone (GH) is generally strongly conserved in mammals, but episodes of rapid change occurred during the evolution of primates and artiodactyls, when the rate of GH evolution apparently increased substantially. As a result the sequences of higher primate and ruminant GHs differ markedly from sequences of other mammalian GHs. In order to increase knowledge of GH evolution in Cetartiodactyla (Artiodactyla plus Cetacea) we have cloned and characterized GH genes from camel (Camelus dromedarius), hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius), and giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis), using genomic DNA and a polymerase chain reaction technique. As in other mammals, these GH genes comprise five exons and four introns. Two very similar GH gene sequences (encoding identical proteins) were found in each of hippopotamus and giraffe. The deduced sequence for the mature hippopotamus GH is identical to that of dolphin, in accord with current ideas of a close relationship between Cetacea and Hippopotamidae. The sequence of camel GH is identical to that reported previously for alpaca GH. The sequence of giraffe GH is very similar to that of other ruminants but differs from that of nonruminant cetartiodactyls at about 18 residues. The results demonstrate that the apparent burst of rapid evolution of GH occurred largely after the separation of the line leading to ruminants from other cetartiodactyls.     

The giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis) cervical vertebral column: a heuristic example in understanding evolutionary processes?

The current study considers the osteological morphology of the giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis) vertebral column, with emphasis on evaluating both the adaptive and constraining features compared with other ungulates as a heuristic example in understanding evolutionary processes. Vertebral columns of giraffes varying in age from calf to adult were studied in order to understand the potential evolutionary scenarios that might have led to the modern phenotype. Data from the giraffe sample were then compared with the results from several other ungulate species, including the okapi and two species of camelids that also have visibly elongated necks. Our results show that the elongated neck of the modern giraffe appears to specifically result from evolutionary changes affecting the seven cervical vertebrae, independent of the remainder of the vertebral column. The cervical vertebrae comprise over half of the length of the total vertebral column in the giraffe. The increases in cervical vertebrae lengths also appear to be allometrically constrained, with alterations in the overall length of the neck resulting from the elongation of the entire cervical series, rather than from a single vertebra or subset of vertebrae. We place our results in the context of hypotheses concerning the origin and evolution of the giraffe neck, and the evolution of long necks in a broader sense. © 2009 The Linnean Society of London, Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2009, 155 , 736–757.     

Population structure and spatial ecology of Kordofan giraffe in Garamba National Park,Democratic Republic of Congo

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Characterization of 16 microsatellite marker loci in the Maasai giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis tippelskirchi)

Sixteen polymorphic microsatellite markers with an average allele size of k = 4.3 are identified from a genomic plasmid library constructed for giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis ssp.). Primer sequences and marker data are reported in tabular form. The markers were screened in a population of 25 Maasai giraffe (G. c. tippelskirchi) collected near the Athi River, Kenya. The average observed heterozygosity for each marker was 0.36 with an average expected heterozygosity of 0.535. Hardy–Weinberg deviations are reported from this population, which is suspected to be inbred. The markers will be used to screen the captive giraffe population for subspecific or hybrid classification.     

Exocrine pancreatic insufficiency-like syndrome in giraffe.

Studies were conducted on four giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis) with diarrhea and three clinically healthy ones. The feces from both healthy and sick animals were examined to determine amylase, lipase and trypsin activity. In the feces of the giraffe with diarrhea a significant decrease of amylase and lipase activity was noted. The trypsin activity remained unchanged. Pancreatic exocrine insufficiency-like syndrome was diagnosed on the basis of laboratory investigations and histopathological examinations. The administration of pancreatic enzyme supplements (Pancreatin; Polfa, Poland) had a noticeable effect on the normalization of clinical state and laboratory data of the giraffe with diarrhea. Determination of amylase and lipase activity in the feces may be helpful in determination of the condition of the pancreas in the course of chronic diarrhea in giraffe.     

Leadership of herd progressions in the Thornicroft's giraffe of Zambia

In cohesive social groups, travel progressions are often led by dominant or older individuals, but the leadership traits of individuals residing in flexible social systems are poorly known. Giraffe reside in herds characterized by fission–fusion dynamics frequently mediated by kinship. We analyzed 41 years (1971–2012) of longitudinal data collected from a community of Thornicroft's giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis thornicrofti) living around South Luangwa National Park, Zambia, to assess the characteristics of herd leaders. Movement of giraffe in a single file progression was not associated with either season or time of day, but progressions were significantly more likely to occur when giraffe traveled in open areas. The oldest female in a herd was significantly more likely to be at the front position than expected, occupying the leadership niche on 79% of observations. We reason that matriarchal leadership in giraffe, as in African elephants, Loxodonta africana, is associated with resource learning. Giraffe societies are constructed on a heretofore unrecognized foundation that integrates relatedness and familiarity with matriarchal leadership in herd movement.