Mechanisms and Evidence of Genital Coevolution: The Roles of Natural Selection,Mate Choice,and Sexual Conflict

Genital coevolution between the sexes is expected to be common because of the direct interaction between male and female genitalia during copulation. Here we review the diverse mechanisms of genital coevolution that include natural selection, female mate choice, male–male competition, and how their interactions generate sexual conflict that can lead to sexually antagonistic coevolution. Natural selection on genital morphology will result in size coevolution to allow for copulation to be mechanically possible, even as other features of genitalia may reflect the action of other mechanisms of selection. Genital coevolution is explicitly predicted by at least three mechanisms of genital evolution: lock and key to prevent hybridization, female choice, and sexual conflict. Although some good examples exist in support of each of these mechanisms, more data on quantitative female genital variation and studies of functional morphology during copulation are needed to understand more general patterns. A combination of different approaches is required to continue to advance our understanding of genital coevolution. Knowledge of the ecology and behavior of the studied species combined with functional morphology, quantitative morphological tools, experimental manipulation, and experimental evolution have been provided in the best-studied species, all of which are invertebrates. Therefore, attention to vertebrates in any of these areas is badly needed.Of all the evolutionary interactions between the sexes, the mechanical interaction of genitalia during copulation in species with internal fertilization is perhaps the most direct. For this reason alone, coevolution between genital morphologies of males and females is expected. Morphological and genetic components of male and female genitalia have been shown to covary in many taxa (Sota and Kubota 1998; Ilango and Lane 2000; Arnqvist and Rowe 2002; Brennan et al. 2007; Rönn et al. 2007; Kuntner et al. 2009; Tatarnic and Cassis 2010; Cayetano et al. 2011; Evans et al. 2011, 2013; Simmons and García-González 2011; Yassin and Orgogozo 2013; and see examples in

The Russian invasion of Ukraine: a humanitarian tragedy and a tragedy for science

The Invasion of Ukraine prompts us to support our Ukranian colleagues but also to keep open communication with the Russian scientists who oppose the war.

In the eyes of the civilized world, Russia has already lost the war: politically, it is becoming ever more isolated; economically as the sanctions take an enormous toll; militarily as the losses of the Russian army mount. In contrast, the courage of Ukrainian people fighting for their independence has united the Western world that is providing enormous support for those Ukrainians who fight the Russian invasion and those who have fled their war‐torn country. Once this war is over, Ukraine will have to heal the wounds of war, reunite families, restore its economy, reestablish infrastructure, and rebuild science and education. Russia will have to restore its dignity and overcome its self‐inflicted isolation.Europe’s unity in condemning Russia’s war of aggression and showing its solidarity with Ukraine has been impressive. This includes not the least welcoming and accommodating millions of refugees. We, the scientific community in Europe, have a moral obligation to help Ukrainian students and colleagues by providing safe space to study and to continue their research. First, European research organizations and funding agencies should develop strategies to support them in the years to come. Second, efforts by EMBO, research funders, universities, and research institutions to support Ukrainian students and scientists are necessary. As a first priority, dedicated and unbureaucratic short‐term scholarship and grant programs are required to accommodate Ukrainian scientists; such programs have been already initiated by many organizations, for example, by EMBO, Volkswagen Stiftung, Max Planck Society, and the ERC among others. These help Ukrainian scientists to stay connected to research and become integrated into the European research landscape. In the long‐term and after the war, this aid should be complemented by funding for research centers of excellence in Ukraine, to which scientists could then return.Even though the priority must be to help Ukrainians, we must also think of students and colleagues in Russia who oppose the war and are affected by the sanctions. As the Iron Curtain closes again, we have to think differently about our ongoing and future collaborations. Although freezing most, if not all, research collaborations with official Russian organizations is justified, it would be a mistake to extend these sanctions to all scientists and students. There is already an exodus of Russian and Belarusian scholars, which will only accelerate in the next months and years, and accepting scientists who ask for political asylum will be beneficial for Europe.The fraction of Russian society in open opposition to the war is, unfortunately, smaller than that officially in support of it. At the beginning of the war, a number of Russian scientists published an open letter on the internet, in which they condemn this war (https://t‐invariant.org/2022/02/we‐are‐against‐war/). They clearly state that "The responsibility for unleashing a new war in Europe lies entirely with Russia. There is no rational justification for this war”, and “demand an immediate halt to all military operations directed against Ukraine". At the same time, other prominent Russian science and education officials signed the “Statement of the Russian Union of University Rectors (Provosts)”, which expressed unwavering support for Russia, its president and its Army and their goal to “to achieve demilitarization and denazification of Ukraine and thus to defend ourselves from the ever‐growing military threat” (https://www.rsr‐online.ru/news/2022‐god/obrashchenie‐rossiyskogo‐soyuza‐rektorov1/).Inevitably, Russian scientists must decide themselves how to live and continue their scientific work under the increasingly tight surveillance of the Kremlin regime. History is repeating itself. Not long ago, during the Cold War, Soviet scientists were largely isolated from the international research community and worked in government‐controlled research. In some fields, no one knew what they were working on or where. However, even in those dark times, courageous individuals such as Andrei Sakharov spoke out against the regime and tried to educate the next generation about the importance of free will. Many Soviet geneticists had been arrested under Stalin’s regime of terror and as a result of Lysenkoism and were executed or sent to the Gulag or had to emigrate, such as Nikolaj Timofeev‐Resovskij, one of the great geneticists of his time and an opponent of communism. As a result of sending dissident scientists to Siberia, great educational institutions were created in the region, which trained many famous scientists. History tells us that it is impossible to kill free will and the search for truth.The Russian invasion of Ukraine is a major humanitarian tragedy and a tragedy for science at many levels. Our hope is that the European science community, policymakers, and funders will be prepared to continue and expand support for our colleagues from Ukraine and eventually help to rebuild the bridges with Russian science that have been torn down.This commentary has been endorsed and signed by the EMBO Young Investigators and former Young Investigators listed below.

All signatories are current and former EMBO Young Investigators and endorse the statements in this article.

Diminished Susceptibility to Cefoperazone/Sulbactam and Piperacillin/Tazobactam in Enterobacteriaceae Due to Narrow-Spectrum β-Lactamases as Well as Omp Mutation

Cefoperazone/sulbactam (CSL) and piperacillin/tazobactam (TZP) are commonly used in clinical practice in China because of their excellent antimicrobial activity. CSL and TZP-nonsusceptible Enterobacteriaceae are typically resistant to extended-spectrum cephalosporins such as ceftriaxone (CRO). However, 11 nonrepetitive Enterobacteriaceae strains, which were resistant to CSL and TZP yet susceptible to CRO, were collected from January to December 2020. Antibiotic susceptibility tests and whole-genome sequencing were conducted to elucidate the mechanism for this rare phenotype. Antibiotic susceptibility tests showed that all isolates were amoxicillin/clavulanic-acid resistant and sensitive to ceftazidime, cefepime, cefepime/tazobactam, cefepime/zidebactam, ceftazidime/avibactam, and ceftolozane/tazobactam. Whole-genome sequencing revealed three of seven Klebsiella pneumoniae strains harbored bla_SHV-1 only, and four harbored bla_SHV-1 and bla_TEM-1B. Two Escherichia coli strains carried bla_TEM-1B only, while two Klebsiella oxytoca isolates harbored bla_OXY-1-3 and bla_OXY-1-1, respectively. No mutation in the β-lactamase gene and promoter sequence was found. Outer membrane protein (Omp) gene detection revealed that numerous missense mutations of OmpK36 and OmpK37 were found in all strains of K. pneumoniae. Numerous missense mutations of OmpK36 and OmpK35 and OmpK37 deficiency were found in one K. oxytoca strain, and no OmpK gene was found in the other. No Omp mutations were found in E. coli isolates. These results indicated that narrow spectrum β-lactamases, TEM-1, SHV-1, and OXY-1, alone or in combination with Omp mutation, contributed to the resistance to CSL and TZP in CRO-susceptible Enterobacteriaceae.Antibiotic susceptibility tests

Kinome profiling of sugar signaling in plants using multiple platforms

Although the primary sequence of kinases shows substantial divergence between unrelated eukaryotes, variation in the motifs that are actually phosphorylated by eukaryotic kinases is much smaller. Hence arrays developed for kinome profiling of mammalian cells are useful for kinome profiling of plant tissues as well, facilitating the study of plant signal transduction. We recently employed the Pepscan kinomics chip to reveal the small GTPases in plant sucrose signaling. Here we show that employing a different peptide library (the Pepscan kinase chip) largely similar results are obtained, confirming these earlier data, but such a different library also contributes new insights into the molecular details mediating plant cell responses to a sugar stimulus. Thus when studying plant signal transduction employing peptide arrays, using multiple platforms both increases the confidence of results and provides additional information.Key words: sucrose, arabidopsis, kinome profiling, kinase, MAPK, SnRK, casein kinase, tyrosine phosphorylation, CDC2, AGC kinaseIn our recently published paper1 we analyze the changes in the plant kinome after sucrose feeding compared to control sorbitol feeding of Arabidopsis. We employed kinomics chips (Pepscan Presto, The Netherlands) containing 960 different kinase consensus peptides selected for their importance in mammalian signal transduction. In addition we used kinase chips (Pepscan Presto, The Netherlands), containing 1,152 peptides covering the majority of peptides available through Phosphobase (version 2.0). These chips contain peptides derived from phosphorylation events described in many kingdoms and are taken from animals, plants, fungi and even bacteria.^2,3 Full details as to the peptides spotted can be found at www. pepscanpresto.com. Results of the cluster analysis of three independent biological replicas of kinome profiling after treatment with water, sorbitol, sucrose and glucose are depicted in Figure 3A of our recent paper.¹ A further analysis of this set of experiments was not given, due to a lower than expected biological reproducibility. In contrast to the >0.8 correlation observed for the set described in our recent paper, correlations of below 0.5 were seen for the experimental set analyzed on the kinase1 chips. However, we feel that some observation made based on these kinome profiles contain valuable information, if only to suggest follow-up experiments.Comparison of the kinome profiles of Arabidopsis treated with sucrose or sorbitol for 1 h revealed a set of 93 differentially phosphorylated consensus peptides, with the majority of 59 peptides showing reduced phosphorylation after sucrose treatment (ConsensusKinasesor vs. suc t-testP up/downESSYSYEEI0.0003downPASPSPQRQCdk5-p230.0014downPKRGSKDGAGC0.0019upIREESPPHS0.0019downRTPPPSGMAPK0.0020downPASQTPNKTtCDC20.0029downSTNEYMDMKPI3 kinase0.0030downSEENSKKTVCKI0.0040downAPTPGGRR0.0043downRFTDTRKDECaM-III0.0046downLSELSRRRIds-RNA0.0062upPINGSPRTPCDC20.0065downTEGQYELQPTyr-K0.0068upKRAQISVRGL0.0069downAKRISGKMA0.0069upVVGGSLRGAAGC0.0071downKRPSNRAKA0.0072upERQKTQTKLSnRK, MLCK0.0073downEEGISQESS0.0080upPVPEYINQSEGFR (Tyr-K)0.0082downFGHNTIDAV0.0082downARVFSVLRECaM-II0.0085downSNDDSDDDDCKII0.0085downGGVDYKNIHTyr-K0.0094upSRSRSRSRS0.0103upSPSLSRHSSGSK30.0107downRAKRSGSV0.0120downRRASLGAGC 1/20.0128downGRASSHSSQS6K0.0129downSGYISSLEYCKII0.0139downFFRRSKIAVAGC0.0140upSTNDSPLbeta-ARK0.0145downLRRASPG0.0149upSAVASNMRDGRK0.0154upKRPSGRAKA0.0160upKRSNSVDTSAGC0.0165downRQLRSPRRTCDC20.0171upGRALSTRAQCDPK, PhK0.0172downVSRTSAVPTAGC0.0173downTRKISQTAQAGC0.0174downSTTVSKTET0.0180downESPASDEAE0.0184upLSYRGYSLPhK0.0185downDDINSYEAW0.0186upPNVSYIASR0.0191downKQPIYIVMEFES (Tyr-K)0.0195upLVVASAGPT0.0198downTGFLTEYVAMAPKK0.0198upTEDQYSLVESrc0.0212upSSSSSPKAEMAPK0.0213upEKAKSPVPK0.0221downRRRASVAAGC1/20.0221downAPVASPAAPMAPK0.0225downLRRLSTKYRAGC1/20.0234downEKHHSIDAQ0.0256downVRKRTLRRLSnRK, AGC0.0266downDLPGTEDFVGRK20.0277downLSEHSSPEECKII0.0278downKREASLDNQAGC0.0279downTKKQSFKQTAGC0.0280upVRLRSSVPGautoP0.0285downKRPSLRAKA0.0293upPGPQSPGSP0.0308downYSGHSMSDP0.0309upADGVYAASGFES (Tyr-K)0.0311upENQASEEEDCKII0.0317downTLASSFKRRAGC0.0324upTVKSSKGGPAGC0.0326downGVLRRASVA0.0327upSPRKSPRKSsperm-specific0.0328downPRRDSTEGFSnRK, AGC0.0332downRRRRAASVA0.0346downSRKDSLDDSGRK0.0371downENPEYLGLDTyr-K0.0380downKAKTTKKRP0.0382upRRPSV0.0392downQKAQTERKSAGC0.0401downAKAKTTKKR0.0404upGSDVSFNEECKII0.0409downDEPSTPYHSGSK30.0409downSSRPSSNRSCDPK, AGC0.0411upGGRASDYKSAGC0.0413upYMAPYDNYVTyr-K0.0420upLELSDDDDCKII0.0422downTHVASVSDVSnRK AMPK0.0423downSMANSFVGTPDKI0.0427downDLLTSPDVGCDC20.0441downRGKSSSYSKAGC0.0441upSSSNTIRRPAGC0.0453upRRDSV0.0457downTKAASEKKS0.0469upDRLVSARSVCDPK, SnRK, AGC0.0480downRLSISTESQAMPK0.0489upOpen in a separate windowArabidopsis seedlings were incubated in a solution of 100 mM sucrose or sorbitol for 1 hour after which extracts were made as described before (Plos One) and incubated on Kinase1 PepChips (1152 consensus peptides spotted twice per slide; Pepscan). The averaged phosphorylation intensities obtained from three independent experiments were analyzed using a Student’s t-test. Indicated is whether phosphorylation of consensus peptides is higher (up) or lower (down) after sucrose treatment, compared to sorbitol. Kinase annotation according to Pepscan Presto (www.pepscanpresto.com), or our own analysis (see main text).     

Endocytic Accessory Factors and Regulation of Clathrin-Mediated Endocytosis

Up to 60 different proteins are recruited to the site of clathrin-mediated endocytosis in an ordered sequence. These accessory proteins have roles during all the different stages of clathrin-mediated endocytosis. First, they participate in the initiation of the endocytic event, thereby determining when and where endocytic vesicles are made; later they are involved in the maturation of the clathrin coat, recruitment of specific cargo molecules, bending of the membrane, and finally in scission and uncoating of the nascent vesicle. In addition, many of the accessory components are involved in regulating and coupling the actin cytoskeleton to the endocytic membrane. We will discuss the different accessory components and their various roles. Most of the data comes from studies performed with cultured mammalian cells or yeast cells. The process of endocytosis is well conserved between these different organisms, but there are also many interesting differences that may shed light on the mechanistic principles of endocytosis.Receptor-mediated endocytosis is the process by which eukaryotic cells concentrate and internalize cell surface receptors from the plasma membrane into small (∼50 nm– ∼100 nm diameter) membrane vesicles (Chen et al. 2011; McMahon and Boucrot 2011; Weinberg and Drubin 2012). This mechanism has been studied extensively in mammalian tissue culture cells and in yeast, and despite the evolutionary distance between yeast and mammalian cells the mechanism of receptor-mediated endocytosis in the respective cell types show remarkable similarities. Indeed many of the ∼60 endocytic accessory proteins (EAPs) found in yeast have homologs in mammalian cells, although both cell types also have unique EAPs (McMahon and Boucrot 2011; Weinberg and Drubin 2012).In the following, we briefly describe known yeast and mammalian EAPs (Sigismund et al. 2012; see also Bökel and Brand 2013; Cosker and Segal 2014; Di Fiore and von Zastrow 2014).

Table 1.

Key endocytic proteins in mammals and in yeast

Aluminum induced proteome changes in tomato cotyledons

Cotyledons of tomato seedlings that germinated in a 20 µM AlK(SO₄)₂ solution remained chlorotic while those germinated in an aluminum free medium were normal (green) in color. Previously, we have reported the effect of aluminum toxicity on root proteome in tomato seedlings (Zhou et al.¹). Two dimensional DIGE protein analysis demonstrated that Al stress affected three major processes in the chlorotic cotyledons: antioxidant and detoxification metabolism (induced), glyoxylate and glycolytic processes (enhanced), and the photosynthetic and carbon fixation machinery (suppressed).Key words: aluminum, cotyledons, proteome, tomatoDifferent biochemical processes occur depending on the developmental stages of cotyledons. During early seed germination, before the greening of the cotyledons, glyoxysomes enzymes are very active. Fatty acids are converted to glucose via the gluconeogenesis pathway.^2,3 In greening cotyledons, chloroplast proteins for photosynthesis and leaf peroxisomal enzymes in the glycolate pathway for photorespiration are metabolized.^2–4 Enzymes involved in regulatory mechanisms such as protein kinases, protein phosphatases, and mitochondrial enzymes are highly expressed.^3,5,6The chlorotic cotyledons are similar to other chlorotic counterparts in that both contains lower levels of chlorophyll, thus the photosynthetic activities are not as active. In order to understand the impact of Al on tomato cotyledon development, a comparative proteome analysis was performed using 2D-DIGE following the as previously described procedure.¹ Some proteins accumulated differentially in Al-treated (chlorotic) and untreated cotyledons (Fig. 1). Mass spectrometry of tryptic digestion fragments of the proteins followed by database search has identified some of the differentially expressed proteins (Open in a separate windowFigure 1Image of protein spots generated by Samspot analysis of Al treated and untreated tomato cotyledons proteomes separated on 2D-DIGE.

Table 1

Proteins identified from tomato cotyledons of seeds germinating in Al-solution

Does an Eye-Hand Coordination Test Have Added Value as Part of Talent Identification in Table Tennis? A Validity and Reproducibility Study

This study investigated the added value, i.e. discriminative and concurrent validity and reproducibility, of an eye-hand coordination test relevant to table tennis as part of talent identification. Forty-three table tennis players (7–12 years) from national (n = 13), regional (n = 11) and local training centres (n = 19) participated. During the eye-hand coordination test, children needed to throw a ball against a vertical positioned table tennis table with one hand and to catch the ball correctly with the other hand as frequently as possible in 30 seconds. Four different test versions were assessed varying the distance to the TotalNationalRegionalLocalTotal43131119Boys268810Girls17539Age (years)10.4±1.410.9±1.510.4±1.510.1±1.47 year olds1--18 year olds51139 year olds3-3-10 year olds1232711 year olds1151512 year olds11443Length (cm)149±11150±12150±12148±10Weight (kg )38±837±737±738±9Right-handed359917Left-handed8422Training (hours*week-1)6 (0–20)11 (7–20)7 (4–11)2 (0–3)Competition (points)173 (−52–430)297 (144–430)188 (72–317)36 (−52–130)Open in a separate windowData are frequencies, except for age, length and weight (years±SD), and training and competition (mean (range)).     

Economic Benefits of Investing in Women’s Health: A Systematic Review

Background

Globally, the status of women’s health falls short of its potential. In addition to the deleterious ethical and human rights implications of this deficit, the negative economic impact may also be consequential, but these mechanisms are poorly understood. Building on the literature that highlights health as a driver of economic growth and poverty alleviation, we aim to systematically investigate the broader economic benefits of investing in women’s health.

Methods

Using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) guidelines, we systematically reviewed health, gender, and economic literature to identify studies that investigate the impact of women’s health on micro- and macroeconomic outcomes. We developed an extensive search algorithm and conducted searches using 10 unique databases spanning the timeframe 01/01/1970 to 01/04/2013. Articles were included if they reported on economic impacts stemming from changes in women’s health (table of outcome measures included in full review, Outcome measures   FertilityIntergenerational Health SpilloverEducationProductivitySavingsMicroeconomic level    Total fertility rateChild survivalEnrollment in schoolIncomeMoneyChange in fertilityChild wellbeing and behaviorYears of schoolingPurchasing powerAssetsAge at first birth/ teenage pregnanciesAnthropometryEarly drop outPerformanceBirth spacingImproved cognitive developmentPerformance in school Life expectancyHigher education  Adult health outcomesLiteracy  Nutrition   Intrauterine growth  Macroeconomic level    Open in a separate windowGross domestic product/gross national product, gross domestic product/gross national product growth, income per capita, labor force participation, per capita income.

Results

The existing literature indicates that healthier women and their children contribute to more productive and better-educated societies. This study documents an extensive literature confirming that women’s health is tied to long-term productivity: the development and economic performance of nations depends, in part, upon how each country protects and promotes the health of women. Providing opportunities for deliberate family planning; healthy mothers before, during, and after childbirth, and the health and productivity of subsequent generations can catalyze a cycle of positive societal development.

Conclusions

This review highlights the untapped potential of initiatives that aim to address women’s health. Societies that prioritize women’s health will likely have better population health overall, and will remain more productive for generations to come.     

Faunistic and bibliographical inventory of the Psychodinae moth-flies of North Africa (Diptera,Psychodidae)

All published records for the 49 species of moth flies known from North Africa are reviewed and discussed: Morocco (27 species), Algeria (33 species), Tunisia (18 species) and Egypt (five species). In addition, records of seven species of Psychodinae new to the fauna of Morocco are added, of which three are new mentions for North Africa (Table ​(Table1)1) and one is a new record for Egypt. Telmatoscopus squamifer Tonnoir, 1922 is transferred to the genus Iranotelmatoscopus Ježek, 1987, comb. n. Satchelliella reghayana Boumezzough & Vaillant, 1987 is transferred to the genus Pneumia Enderlein, 1935, comb. n. Pneumia aberrans Tonnoir, 1922 is transferred to the subgenus Logima.

Table 1.

Species (in alphabetical order) of Psychodinae known from the North African countries. Libya has been omitted because no information exists in the literature from Libya.

Escherichia coli O157:H7 and Other E. coli Strains Share Physiological Properties Associated with Intestinal Colonization

Escherichia coli isolates (72 commensal and 10 O157:H7 isolates) were compared with regard to physiological and growth parameters related to their ability to survive and persist in the gastrointestinal tract and found to be similar. We propose that nonhuman hosts in E. coli O157:H7 strains function similarly to other E. coli strains in regard to attributes relevant to gastrointestinal colonization.Escherichia coli is well known for its ecological versatility (15). A life cycle which includes both gastrointestinal and environmental stages has been stressed by both Savageau (15) and Adamowicz et al. (1). The gastrointestinal stage would be subjected to acid and detergent stress. The environmental stage is implicit in E. coli having transport systems for fungal siderophores (4) as well as pyrroloquinoline quinone-dependent periplasmic glucose utilization (1) because their presence indicates evolution in a location containing fungal siderophores and pyrroloquinoline quinone (1).Since its recognition as a food-borne pathogen, there have been numerous outbreaks of food-borne infection due to E. coli O157:H7, in both ground beef and vegetable crops (6, 13). Cattle are widely considered to be the primary reservoir of E. coli O157:H7 (14), but E. coli O157:H7 does not appear to cause disease in cattle. To what extent is E. coli O157:H7 physiologically unique compared to the other naturally occurring E. coli strains? We feel that the uniqueness of E. coli O157:H7 should be evaluated against a backdrop of other wild-type E. coli strains, and in this regard, we chose the 72-strain ECOR reference collection originally described by Ochman and Selander (10). These strains were chosen from a collection of 2,600 E. coli isolates to provide diversity with regard to host species, geographical distribution, and electromorph profiles at 11 enzyme loci (10).In our study we compared the 72 strains of the ECOR collection against 10 strains of E. coli O157:H7 and six strains of E. coli which had been in laboratory use for many years (Table ​(Table1).1). The in vitro comparisons were made with regard to factors potentially relevant to the bacteria''s ability to colonize animal guts, i.e., acid tolerance, detergent tolerance, and the presence of the Entner-Doudoroff (ED) pathway (Table ​(Table2).2). Our longstanding interest in the ED pathway (11) derives in part from work by Paul Cohen''s group (16, 17) showing that the ED pathway is important for E. coli colonization of the mouse large intestine. Growth was assessed by replica plating 88 strains of E. coli under 40 conditions (Table ​(Table2).2). These included two LB controls (aerobic and anaerobic), 14 for detergent stress (sodium dodecyl sulfate [SDS], hexadecyltrimethylammonium bromide [CTAB], and benzalkonium chloride, both aerobic and anaerobic), 16 for acid stress (pH 6.5, 6.0, 5.0, 4.6, 4.3, 4.2, 4.1, and 4.0), four for the ability to grow in a defined minimal medium (M63 glucose salts with and without thiamine), and four for the presence or absence of a functional ED pathway (M63 with gluconate or glucuronate). All tests were done with duplicate plates in two or three separate trials. The data are available in Tables S1 to S14 in the supplemental material, and they are summarized in Table ​Table22.

TABLE 1.

E. coli strains used in this study

The Diagnosis and Management of Hereditary Haemochromatosis

Hereditary haemochromatosis (HH) is a common genetic disorder of iron metabolism in individuals of Northern European ancestry which leads to inappropriate iron absorption from the intestine and iron overload in susceptible individuals. Iron overload is suggested by elevations in serum ferritin and transferrin saturation. The majority of patients with clinically significant iron overload are homozygous for the C282Y mutation of the HFE gene, however only a minority of C282Y homozygotes fully express the disease clinically. Those with a high serum ferritin (>1000 μg/L) and additional hepatic insults from cofactors are more likely to develop cirrhosis and its complications. The mainstay of treatment is venesection. Those without cirrhosis who undergo appropriate venesection have a normal life expectancy. Family screening is recommended for all first degree relatives of an individual with the disease.HH refers to a group of inherited disorders that result in progressive iron overload. Mutations of the HFE gene are responsible for the majority of cases of HH,¹ although disease expression is highly variable.² The ready availability of testing for the two clinically relevant mutations: C282Y and H63D, has substantially altered the approach to suspected iron overload in clinical practice. A number of rare but important forms of non-HFE related HH have also been described.³ The other main causes of iron overload are outlined in the HH HFE related HH (C282Y/C282Y, C282Y/H63D) Non-HFE related HH  Juvenile Haemochromatosis   Hemojuvelin related   Hepcidin related  Transferrin receptor-2 related HH Ferroportin related HHSecondary Iron Overload Iron loading anaemia  Thalassaemia major  Sideroblastic anaemia  Chronic haemolytic anaemia Parenteral iron overload (multiple transfusions)Others Metabolic syndrome Chronic liver disease  Hepatitis C  Alcoholic liver disease  Non-alcoholic steatohepatitis  Porphyria cutanea tarda African Iron Overload Acaeruloplasminaemia Atransferrinaemia Neonatal iron overloadOpen in a separate window     

A conifer genome spruces up plant phylogenomics

The Norway spruce genome provides key insights into the evolution of plant genomes, leading to testable new hypotheses about conifer, gymnosperm, and vascular plant evolution.In the past year a burst of plant genome sequences have been published, providing enhanced phylogenetic coverage of green plants (Figure ​(Figure1)1) and inclusion of new agricultural, ecological, and evolutionary models. Collectively, these sequences are revealing some extraordinary structural and evolutionary attributes in plant genomes. Perhaps most surprising is the exceptionally high frequency of whole-genome duplication (WGD): nearly every genome that has been analyzed has borne the signature of one or more WGDs, with particularly notable events having occurred in the common ancestors of seed plants, of angiosperms, and of core eudicots (the latter ''WGD'' represents two WGDs in close succession) [1,2]. Given this tendency for plant genomes to duplicate and then return to an essentially diploid genetic system (an example is the cotton genomes, which have accumulated the effects of perhaps 15 WGDs [3]), the conservation of genomes in terms of gene number, chromosomal organization, and gene content is astonishing. From the publication of the first plant genome, Arabidopsis thaliana [4], the number of inferred genes has been between 25,000 and 30,000, with many gene families shared across all land plants, although the number of members and patterns of expansion and contraction vary. Furthermore, conserved synteny has been detected across the genomes of diverse angiosperms, despite WGDs, diploidization, and millions of years of evolution.Open in a separate windowFigure 1Simplified phylogeny of land plants, showing major clades and their component lineages. Asterisks indicate species (or lineage) for which whole-genome sequence (or sequences) is (are) available. Increases and decreases in genome size are shown by arrows.Despite the proliferation of genome sequences available for angiosperms, genome-level data for both ferns (and their relatives, collectively termed monilophytes; Figure ​Figure1)1) and gymnosperms have been conspicuously lacking - until recently, with the publication of the genome sequence of the gymnosperm Norway spruce (Picea abies) [5]. The large genome sizes for both monilophytes and gymnosperms have discouraged attempts at genome sequencing and assembly, whereas the smaller genome size of angiosperms has resulted in more genome sequences being available (Table ​(Table1)1) [6]. Because of this limited phylogenetic sample, our understanding of the timing and phylogenetic positions of WGDs, the core number of plant genes, possible conserved syntenic regions, and patterns of expansion and contraction of gene families across both tracheophytes (vascular plants) and across all land plants is imperfect. This sampling problem is particularly acute in analyses of the genes and genomes of seed plants; many hundreds of genes are present in angiosperms that are not present in mosses or lycophytes, but whether these genes arose in the common ancestor of seed plants or of angiosperms cannot be determined without a gymnosperm genome sequence. The Norway spruce genome therefore offers tremendous power, not only for understanding the structure and evolution of conifer genomes, but also as a reference for interpreting gene and genome evolution in angiosperms.

Table 1

Genome sizes in land plants