How do spinal segments move?

PurposeTo study and clarify the kinematics of spinal segments following cyclic torques causing axial rotation (T_z (t)), lateral-flexion (T_x (t)), flexion/extension (T_y (t)).MethodsA 6D--Measurement of location, alignment, and migration of the instantaneous helical axis (IHA) as a function of rotational angle in cervical, thoracic, and lumbar segments subjected to axially directed preloads.ResultsIHA retained an almost constant alignment, but migrated along distinct centrodes.Thoracic segmentsIHA was almost parallel to T_z (t), T_x (t), or T_y (t), stationary for T_x (t) or T_y (t), and migrating for T_z (t) along dorsally opened bows. IHA locations hardly depended on the position or size of axial preload.Lumbar segmentsIHA was also almost parallel to T_z (t), T_x (t), or T_y (t). In axial rotation IHA-migration along wide, ventrally or dorsally bent bows depending on segmental flexional/extensional status. Distances covered: 20–60 mm. In lateral-flexion: IHA-migration to the left/right joint and vice versa. In flexion/extension IHA-migration from the facets to the centre of the disc.Cervical segmentsIn flexion/flexion IHA was almost stationary for and parallel to T_y (t). In axial rotation or lateral-flexion IHA intersected T_z (t)/T_x (t) under approximately ?30°/+30°.ConclusionsGenerally joints alternate in guidance. Lumbar segments: in axial rotation and lateral-flexion parametrical control of IHA-position and IHA-migration by axial preload position. Cervical segments: kinematical coupling between axial rotation and lateral-flexion.The IHA-migration guided by the joints should be taken into account in the design of non-fusion implants. FE-calculations of spinal mechanics and kinematics should be based on detailed data of curvature morphology of the articulating surfaces of the joint facets.     

生物活性玻璃提高骨质疏松绵羊椎弓根螺钉稳定性的体内实验研究

目的：研究生物活性玻璃（Bioactive Glass,BG）在骨质疏松绵羊体内强化椎弓根螺钉固定的力学效果,并观察钉道界面及材料吸收等情况。方法：4只成年雌性小尾寒羊,采用去势联合激素注射方法建立骨质疏松绵羊模型。选择绵羊L2至L5双侧椎弓根,随机化选取一侧直接拧入椎弓根螺钉（空白组）,对侧采用BG强化钉道后拧入椎弓根螺钉（实验组）。术后3月随机选取6个椎体（12枚椎弓根螺钉）,对螺钉骨质界面行显微CT分析和组织学观察。对剩余10个椎体（20枚椎弓根螺钉）行轴向拔出实验,分析螺钉固定强度。结果：术前绵羊腰椎BMD为0.818±0.0310 g/cm2,建模完成后为1.000±0.0316 g/cm2,BMD平均值下降22.38%,差异有统计学意义（P〈0.05）。实验组螺钉骨质界面的Tb.Th、Tb.N组较对照组分别增加143.60%和33.56%,差异有统计学意义（P〈0.05）。实验组钉道周围材料绝大部分已经降解吸收,大量新生骨组织紧密包裹螺钉;对照组钉道周围骨量较少,钉骨结合不紧密,实验组螺钉骨质界面结合优于对照组。实验组的最大轴向拔出力为1083.04±86.37N,空白组为871.76±79.03N,前者较后者提高25.26%,差异有统计学意义（P〈0.05）。结论：生物活性玻璃能显著改善骨质疏松情况下螺钉骨质界面的骨微观结构,进而提高椎弓根螺钉的把持力。     

生物活性玻璃提高骨质疏松绵羊椎弓根螺钉稳定性的体内实验研究

目的:研究生物活性玻璃(Bioactive Glass,BG)在骨质疏松绵羊体内强化椎弓根螺钉固定的力学效果,并观察钉道界面及材料吸收等情况。方法:4只成年雌性小尾寒羊,采用去势联合激素注射方法建立骨质疏松绵羊模型。选择绵羊L2至L5双侧椎弓根,随机化选取一侧直接拧入椎弓根螺钉(空白组),对侧采用BG强化钉道后拧入椎弓根螺钉(实验组)。术后3月随机选取6个椎体(12枚椎弓根螺钉),对螺钉骨质界面行显微CT分析和组织学观察。对剩余10个椎体(20枚椎弓根螺钉)行轴向拔出实验,分析螺钉固定强度。结果:术前绵羊腰椎BMD为0.818±0.0310 g/cm2,建模完成后为1.000±0.0316 g/cm2,BMD平均值下降22.38%,差异有统计学意义(P<0.05)。实验组螺钉骨质界面的Tb.Th、Tb.N组较对照组分别增加143.60%和33.56%,差异有统计学意义(P<0.05)。实验组钉道周围材料绝大部分已经降解吸收,大量新生骨组织紧密包裹螺钉;对照组钉道周围骨量较少,钉骨结合不紧密,实验组螺钉骨质界面结合优于对照组。实验组的最大轴向拔出力为1083.04±86.37N,空白组为871.76±79.03N,前者较后者提高25.26%,差异有统计学意义(P<0.05)。结论:生物活性玻璃能显著改善骨质疏松情况下螺钉骨质界面的骨微观结构,进而提高椎弓根螺钉的把持力。     

Formalin fixation strongly influences biomechanical properties of the spine

As fresh human cadaveric spine specimens for in vitro testing are hard to obtain and carry a potential risk of infection, the possibility of using embalmed spine specimens has been considered. The cross-linking effect of formalin fixation, however, raises uncertainties regarding the biomechanical likeness of preserved specimens. They have been reported to be stiffer, but no quantitative data exist.

The purpose of this study was to determine the biomechanical differences between fresh and formalin-fixed spine specimens, using L1–2 motion segments from six 16-week-old calf spines. The range of motion and neutral zone were determined in flexion-/extension, left/right axial rotation, and right/left lateral bending.

The range of motion decreased in the formalin fixed specimens by as much as 80%, and the neutral zone by as much as 96%. The results of this study therefore imply that, for biomechanical testing, formalin-fixed specimens are not representative of the in vivo conditions.     

In vitro axial preload application during spine flexibility testing: towards reduced apparatus-related artefacts

Presently, there is little consensus about how, or even if, axial preload should be incorporated in spine flexibility tests in order to simulate the compressive loads naturally present in vivo. Some preload application methods are suspected of producing unwanted “artefact” forces as the specimen rotates and, in doing so, influencing the resulting kinematics. The objective of this study was to quantitatively compare four distinct types of preload which have roots in contemporary experimental practice. The specific quantities compared were the reaction moments and forces resulting at the intervertebral disc and specimen kinematics. The preload types incorporated increasing amounts of caudal constraint on the preload application vector ranging from an unconstrained dead-load arrangement to an apparatus that allowed the vector to follow rotations of the specimen. Six human cadaveric spine segments were tested (1-L1/L2, 3-L2/L3, 1-L3/L4 and 1-L4/L5). Pure moments were applied to the specimens with each of the four different types of compressive preload. Kinematic response was measured using an opto-electronic motion analysis system. A six-axis load cell was used to measure reaction forces and moments. Artefact reaction moments and shear forces were significantly affected by preload application method and magnitude. Unconstrained preload methods produced high artefact moments and low artefact shear forces while more constrained methods did the opposite. A mechanical trade-off is suggested by our results, whereby unwanted moment can only be prevented at the cost of shear force production. When comparing spine flexibility studies, caution should be exercised to ensure preload was applied in a similar manner for all studies. Unwanted moments or forces induced as a result of preload application method may render the comparison of two seemingly similar studies inappropriate.     

Adaptive velocity-based six degree of freedom load control for real-time unconstrained biomechanical testing

Robotic biomechanics is a powerful tool for further developing our understanding of biological joints, tissues and their repair. Both velocity-based and hybrid force control methods have been applied to biomechanics but the complex and non-linear properties of joints have limited these to slow or stepwise loading, which may not capture the real-time behaviour of joints. This paper presents a novel force control scheme combining stiffness and velocity based methods aimed at achieving six degree of freedom unconstrained force control at physiological loading rates.     

Effect of bone fragment impact velocity on biomechanical parameters related to spinal cord injury: A finite element study

Several experimental and computational studies have investigated the effect of bone fragment impact on the spinal cord during trauma. However, the effect of the impact velocity of a fragment generated by a burst fracture on the stress and strain inside the spinal cord has not been computationally investigated, even though spinal canal occlusion and peak pressure at various impact velocities were provided in experimental studies. These stresses and strains are known factors related to clinical symptoms or injuries. In this study, a fluid-structure interaction model of the spinal cord, dura mater, and cerebrospinal fluid was developed and validated. The von-Mises stress distribution in the cord, the longitudinal strain, the cord compression and cross-sectional area at the impact center, and the obliteration of the cerebrospinal fluid layer were analyzed for three pellet sizes at impact velocities ranging from 1.5 m/s to 7.5 m/s. The results indicate that stress in the cord was substantially elevated when the initial impact velocity of the pellet exceeded a threshold of 4.5 m/s. Cord compression, reduction in cross-sectional area, and obliteration of the cerebrospinal fluid increased gradually as the velocity of the pellet increased, regardless of the size of the pellet. The present study provides insight into the mechanisms underlying spinal cord injury.     

Use of antagonist muscle EMG in the assessment of neuromuscular health of the low back

Background

Non-specific low back pain (LBP) has been one of the most frequently occurring musculoskeletal problems. Impairment in the mechanical stability of the lumbar spine has been known to lower the safety margin of the spine musculature and can result in the occurrence of pain symptoms of the low back area. Previously, changes in spinal stability have been identified by investigating recruitment patterns of low back and abdominal muscles in laboratory experiments with controlled postures and physical activities that were hard to conduct in daily life. The main objective of this study was to explore the possibility of developing a reliable spine stability assessment method using surface electromyography (EMG) of the low back and abdominal muscles in common physical activities.

Methods

Twenty asymptomatic young participants conducted normal walking, plank, and isometric back extension activities prior to and immediately after maintaining a 10-min static upper body deep flexion on a flat bed. EMG data of the erector spinae, external oblique, and rectus abdominals were collected bilaterally, and their mean normalized amplitude values were compared between before and after the static deep flexion. Changes in the amplitude and co-contraction ratio values were evaluated to understand how muscle recruitment patterns have changed after the static deep flexion.

Results

Mean normalized amplitude of antagonist muscles (erector spinae muscles while conducting plank; external oblique and rectus abdominal muscles while conducting isometric back extension) decreased significantly (P < 0.05) after the 10-min static deep flexion. Normalized amplitude of agonist muscles did not vary significantly after deep flexion.

Conclusions

Results of this study suggest the possibility of using surface EMG in the evaluation of spinal stability and low back health status in simple exercise postures that can be done in non-laboratory settings. Specifically, amplitude of antagonist muscles was found to be more sensitive than agonist muscles in identifying changes in the spinal stability associated with the 10-min static deep flexion. Further research with various loading conditions and physical activities need to be performed to improve the reliability and utility of the findings of the current study.     

定硫法测定大蒜中大蒜素含量及影响因素

本文采用定硫法测定了苍山大蒜中的大蒜素含量。研究了氧化剂用量、酸度及称样量等因素对测定结果的影响 ,优选出定硫法测定大蒜素含量的最佳条件。用硝酸汞法进行比对 ,经t检验 ,两方法间不存在显著性差异。     

Biomechanical allometry in hominoid thoracic vertebrae

Considerable differences in spinal morphology have been noted between humans and other hominoids. Although comparative analyses of the external morphology of vertebrae have been performed, much less is known regarding variations in internal morphology (density) and biomechanical performance among humans and closely related non-human primates. In the current study we utilize density calibrated computed tomography images of thoracic vertebral bodies from hominoids (n = 8-15 per species, human specimens 20-40 years of age) to obtain estimates of vertebral bone strength in axial compression and anteroposterior bending and to determine how estimates of strength scale with animal body mass. Our biomechanical analysis suggests that the strength of thoracic vertebral bodies is related to body mass (M) through power law relationships (y ∝ M^b) in which the exponent b is 0.89 (reduced major axis) for prediction of axial compressive strength and is equal to 1.89 (reduced major axis) for prediction of bending strength. No differences in the relationship between body mass and strength were observed among hominoids. However, thoracic vertebrae from humans were found to be disproportionately larger in terms of vertebral length (distance between cranial and caudal endplates) and overall vertebral body volume (p < 0.05). Additionally, vertebral bodies from humans were significantly less dense than in other hominoids (p < 0.05). We suggest that reduced density in human vertebral bodies is a result of a systemic increase in porosity of cancellous bone in humans, while increased vertebral body volume and length are a result of functional adaptation during growth resulting in a vertebral bone structure that is just as strong, relative to body mass, as in other hominoids.     

δ-Catenin Regulates Spine Architecture via Cadherin and PDZ-dependent Interactions

The ability of neurons to maintain spine architecture and modulate it in response to synaptic activity is a crucial component of the cellular machinery that underlies information storage in pyramidal neurons of the hippocampus. Here we show a critical role for δ-catenin, a component of the cadherin-catenin cell adhesion complex, in regulating spine head width and length in pyramidal neurons of the hippocampus. The loss of Ctnnd2, the gene encoding δ-catenin, has been associated with the intellectual disability observed in the cri du chat syndrome, suggesting that the functional roles of δ-catenin are vital for neuronal integrity and higher order functions. We demonstrate that loss of δ-catenin in a mouse model or knockdown of δ-catenin in pyramidal neurons compromises spine head width and length, without altering spine dynamics. This is accompanied by a reduction in the levels of synaptic N-cadherin. The ability of δ-catenin to modulate spine architecture is critically dependent on its ability to interact with cadherin and PDZ domain-containing proteins. We propose that loss of δ-catenin during development perturbs synaptic architecture leading to developmental aberrations in neural circuit formation that contribute to the learning disabilities in a mouse model and humans with cri du chat syndrome.     

树[鼠句]的基本实验操作方法

目的对树[鼠句]抓取和保定、采血、灌胃基本实验技术方法进行探讨,逐步规范树[鼠句]实验技术。方法选用成年树[鼠句]进行抓取和保定,分徒于法和器具法（自制捕捉保定袋）,对130只树[鼠句]采用尾静脉、股动（静）脉两种采血方法;采取人用8号胃管可对树[鼠句]绎口灌胃给药。结果所采用徒手、器具的方法抓取和保定树[鼠句]均能有效地控制动物,不会发生动物死亡或很少逃逸;两种方法都顺利采集到所需血量,股动（静）脉单次最大采血量可达2mL而不损伤动物;12只树[鼠句]连续灌胃10d,成功率100％。结论自制的捕捉保定袋经济实用,摸索的几种树[鼠句]实验技术方法具有操作简便、安全、快捷等优点。     

光合细菌产氢因子的研究进展

光合细菌在固氮的同时释放氢气。产氢与固氮是同步进行的。固氮酶与氢酶共同影响光合细菌的产氢活性,而外源生理条件又影响着固氮酶与氢酶的活性,其中有机碳阻抑吸氢酶表达,促进产氢;氨则抑制固氮活性而降低产氢量;氧气的存在使固氮酶与氢酶都失活,从而抑制放氢反应的进行。     

实验性羊胫骨骨折愈合生物力学研究

本实验用山羊10只,线锯造成胫骨中部骨折,夹板固定。于术后2、4、6周分别处死动物。测量其胫骨骨折愈合的极限弯曲载荷。结果表明:(1)术后第2周,因为纤维性骨痂,无弯曲载荷测量;(2)术后第4周,极限弯曲载荷是150±24(N),其断裂发生在原骨折线,(3)术后第6周,原骨折线处不再发生断裂,干骺部出现断裂,其极限弯曲载荷为653±55(N)。这些结果对临床骨科是有意义的。     

Murine bladder wall biomechanics following partial bladder obstruction

Evaluation of bladder wall mechanical behavior is important in understanding the functional changes that occur in response to pathologic processes such as partial bladder outlet obstruction (pBOO). In the murine model, the traditional approach of cystometry to describe bladder compliance can prove difficult secondary to small bladder capacity and surgical exposure of the bladder. Here, we explore an alternative technique to characterize murine mechanical properties by applying biaxial mechanical stretch to murine bladders that had undergone pBOO. 5–6 week old female C57/Bl6 mice were ovariectomized and subjected to pBOO via an open surgical urethral ligation and sacrificed after 4 weeks (n=12). Age matched controls (n=6) were also analyzed. Bladders were separated based on phenotype of fibrotic (n=6) or distended (n=6) at the time of harvest. Biaxial testing was performed in modified Kreb's solution at 37 °C. Tissue was preconditioned to 10 cycles and mechanical response was evaluated by comparing axial strain at 50 kPa. The normal murine bladders exhibited anisotropy and were stiffer in the longitudinal direction. All mice showed a loss of anisotropy after 4 weeks of pBOO. The two phenotypes observed after pBOO, fibrotic and distended, exhibited less and more extensibility, respectively. These proof-of-principle data demonstrate that pBOO creates quantifiable changes in the mechanics of the murine bladder that can be effectively quantified with biaxial testing.     

Consequences of the fractal architecture of trees on their structural measures

While the mechanics of trees are well known, a systematic and comprehensive study of the mechanical consequences of a tree's fractal structure has been lacking. Here, we analyze the structure of botanical trees using computer modeling and show that many relevant measures of support throughout all the branches of a tree follow specific patterns which can be described by characteristic probability distributions and well-defined spatial relationships. Most notably, moments, forces, and axial and shear stresses throughout the different branches all exhibit power-law distributions. These results suggest a new approach to the study of the mechanics of trees, one accounting for the implications of the above results.