Spatial pattern model of herbaceous plant mass at species level

Individual plant species distribute according to their own spatial pattern in a community. In this study, we proposed an index for measuring the spatial heterogeneity in mass (dry weight) of individual plant species. First, we showed that the frequency distributions for mass of individual plant species per quadrat in a plant community are expressed using the gamma distribution with two parameters of λ (mean) and p. The parameter p is a measure indicating the level of spatial heterogeneity of plant mass as follows: (1) when p = 1, the plant mass per quadrat has a random pattern; (2) when p > 1, the plant mass has a spatial pattern with a lower heterogeneity than would be expected in the random pattern; and (3) when p < 1, the plant mass has a spatial pattern with a higher heterogeneity than would be expected in the random pattern. The p value for a given species can easily be calculated by the following equation if we use the moment method: (mean plant mass among quadrats)² / (variance of plant mass among quadrats). The scatter diagram of (λ, p) for individual plant species, exhibits the spatial characteristics of each species in the community. We illustrated two examples of the (λ, p) diagram from data for individual species composing actual communities in a semi-natural grassland and a weedy grassland. Frequency distributions for the plant mass of individual species per quadrat followed the gamma distribution, and indi vidual species exhibited an inherent level of spatial heterogeneity.     

New coumarin derivatives: Design,synthesis and use as inhibitors of hMAO

A series new 2H-chromene-3-carboxamides (4a–4i) and S-2H-chromene-3-carbothioates (5j–5t) were synthesized and evaluated as monoamine oxidase A and B inhibitors. Among them, compound 5k (IC₅₀ = 0.21 μM, IC_{50 iproniazid} = 7.65 μM) showed the most activity and higher MAO-B selectivity (189.2-fold vs 1-fold) with respect to the MAO-A isoform. The need to clarify at a 3D level some important molecular aspects of discussed SAR, we undertaked a number of docking simulations to better assess. The steric effect was analyzed interms of both posing and scoring by investigating the nature of the binding interactions. The docking results of active compound 5k with hMAO-B complex indicated that conserved residue ILE 199 was important for ligand binding via Sigma–Pi interaction.     

Diversity and spatial clustering of shade trees affect cacao yield and pathogen pressure in Costa Rican agroforests

The importance of the spatial organisation of individuals in explaining species coexistence within a community is widely recognised. However, few analyses of spatial structure have been performed on tropical agroforests.The main objective of this study was to highlight the links between spatial organisation of shade trees on the one hand, and shade tree species richness and cacao yield on the other, using data from 29 cacao agroforests in Costa Rica.A method of spatial statistics, Ripley's K-function, was used to analyse the spatial organisation of shade and cacao trees in the study plots. For each stand, the X and Y coordinates of ≥2.5-m-tall trees were recorded. In each plot we also assessed shade tree species richness and cacao yield (with total number of pods = number of pods damaged by frosty pod rot + number of healthy pods).Three types of stands were identified: the first was characterised by significant clustering of shade trees, the highest shade tree species richness (S = 6), and the highest number of damaged pods (139 pods ha^?1 year^?1). The second type was characterised by random spatial organisation of shade trees. The third type showed a trend towards regular organisation. Species richness of shade trees did not differ significantly between the last two types (S = 4 for both), nor did the number of damaged pods (56 pods ha^?1 year^?1 and 67 pods ha^?1 year^?1 respectively).Although the trends were not statistically significant for all the variables in our data set, the clustered spatial structure appears to favour a synergy between environmental (tree species richness), and provisioning (cacao production) services.     

Effects of plant diversity on biomass production and substrate nitrogen in a subsurface vertical flow constructed wetland

Most biodiversity experiments have been conducted in grassland ecosystems with nitrogen limitation, while little research has been conducted on relationships between plant biomass production, substrate nitrogen retention and plant diversity in wetlands with continuous nitrogen supply. We conducted a plant diversity experiment in a subsurface vertical flow constructed wetland for treating domestic wastewater in southeastern China. Plant aboveground biomass production ranged from 20 to 3121 g m^?2 yr^?1 across all plant communities. In general, plant biomass production was positively correlated with species richness (P = 0.001) and functional group richness (P = 0.001). Substrate nitrate concentration increased significantly with increasing plant species richness (P = 0.046), but not with functional group richness (P = 0.550). Furthermore, legumes did not affect biomass production (P = 0.255), retention of substrate nitrate (P = 0.280) and ammonium (P = 0.269). Compared to the most productive of the corresponding monocultures, transgressive overyielding of mixed plant communities did not occur in most polycultures. Because greater diversity of plant community led to higher biomass production and substrate nitrogen retention, thus we recommend that plant biodiversity should be incorporated in constructed wetlands to improve wastewater treatment efficiency.     

Effects of plant diversity on microbial biomass and community metabolic profiles in a full-scale constructed wetland

There has been less understanding of relations of microbial community patterns with plant diversity in constructed wetlands. We conducted a single full-scale subsurface vertical flow constructed wetland (SVFCW, 1000 m²) study focusing on domestic wastewater processing. This study measured the size and structure of microbial community using fumigation extraction and BIOLOG Ecoplate? techniques, to examine the effects of macrophyte diversity on microbial communities that are critical in treatment efficiency of constructed wetlands. We also determined the relationship of plant diversity (species richness) with its biomass production under disturbance of the same wastewater supply. Linear regression analysis showed that plant biomass production strongly correlated with plant species richness (R = 0.407, P < 0.001). Increase in plant species richness increased microbial biomass carbon and nitrogen (R = 0.494, P < 0.001; R = 0.465, P < 0.001) and utilization of amino acids on Ecoplates (R = 0.235, P = 0.03), but limited the utilization of amine/amides (R = ?0.338, P = 0.013). Principal components analysis (PCA) showed that the diversity and community-level physiological profiles (CLPP) of microbial community at 168 h of incubation strongly depended on the presence or absence of plant species in the SVFCW system, but not on the species richness. This is the first step toward understanding relations of plant diversity with soil microbial community patterns in constructed wetlands, but the effect of species diversity on microbial community should be further studied.     

Extinction thresholds and negative responses of Afrotropical ant-following birds to forest cover loss in oil palm and agroforestry landscapes

Afrotropical ant-following birds are vulnerable to forest loss and disturbance, but critical habitat thresholds regarding their abundance and species richness in human-dominated landscapes, including industrial oil palm plantations, have never been assessed. We measured forest cover through Landsat imagery and recorded species richness and relative abundance of 20 ant-following birds in 48 plots of 1-km², covering three landscapes of Southwest Cameroon: Korup National Park, smallholder agroforestry areas (with farms embedded in forest), and an industrial oil palm plantation. We evaluated differences in encounter frequency and species richness among landscapes, and the presence of critical thresholds through enhanced adaptive regression through hinges. All species were detected in Korup National Park and the agroforestry landscape, which had similar forest cover (>85%). Only nine species were found in the oil palm plantation (forest cover = 10.3 ± 3.3%). At the 1-km² scale, the number of species and bird encounters were comparable in agroforests and the protected area: mean species richness ranged from 12.2 ± 0.6 in the park and 12.2 ± 0.6 in the agroforestry matrix to 1.0 ± 0.4 in the industrial oil palm plantation; whereas encounters decreased from 34.4 ± 3.2 to 26.1 ± 2.9 and 1.3 ± 0.4, respectively. Bird encounters decreased linearly with decreasing forest cover, down to an extinction threshold identified at 24% forest cover. Species richness declined linearly by ca. one species per 7.4% forest cover lost. We identified an extinction threshold at 52% forest cover for the most sensitive species (Criniger chloronotus, Dicrurus atripennis, and Neocossyphus poensis). Our results show that substantial proportions of forests are required to sustain complete ant-following bird assemblages in Afrotropical landscapes and confirm the high sensitivity of this bird guild to deforestation after industrial oil palm development. Securing both forest biodiversity and food production in an Afrotropical production landscape may be best attained through a combination of protected areas and wildlife-friendly agroforestry.     

Net primary productivity and seasonality of temperature and precipitation are predictors of the species richness of the Damselflies in the Amazon

Several hypotheses have been proposed to explain the mechanisms that generate temporal and spatial species richness patterns. We tested four common hypotheses (water, energy, climatic heterogeneity and net primary productivity) to evaluate which factors best explain patterns of Zygoptera species richness. Of these, we predicted that climatic heterogeneity would be the most important predictor for Zygoptera richness patterns. We sampled communities of adult Zygoptera in 100 small Amazonian streams. Based on generalized linear mixed models (GLMM), we found that net primary productivity and climatic heterogeneity comprised the best model of Zygoptera species richness in Amazonian streams, with an pseudo r² of 39.5%. Results indicate that species richness increases by one species per 1 kg of biomass per square meter in NPP, or with an increase of 2 °C in air temperature variability. Our work corroborates a recent study with other taxa in Brazilian Bioms. This suggests that temporal variation in climate and net primary productivity are important predictors of the macroecological patterns of richness for aquatic organisms in tropical regions.     

Composition and diversity of weed communities in Al-Jouf province,northern Saudi Arabia

The aim of this study was to identify the main weed communities in Al-Jouf province in northern Saudi Arabia. Moreover, the composition and diversity of these communities were studied in relation to soil variables and crop type. Some 54 stands representing olive orchards, date palm orchards, wheat crop and watermelon crop were studied, using ten quadrats (1 × 1 m) per stand. A total of 71 species belonging to 22 families and 61 genera were observed. The classification of vegetation using the Two Way Indicator Species Analysis (TWINSPAN) resulted in the recognition of four vegetation groups representing wheat crop, orchards in winter season, orchards in summer season and watermelon crop. These results suggested the importance of both crop and season for the formation of weed community. Detrended Correspondence Analysis (DCA) showed that these groups are clearly distinguished by the first two DCA axes. The species richness was higher in both olive and date palm orchards than in wheat and watermelon crops. This pattern of species richness could be related to farm management practices and habitat micro-heterogeneity. Soil electrical conductivity, organic carbon and soil texture showed significant correlations with species richness and the cover values of some dominant species, suggesting the significant role of soil characteristics in weed community structure and diversity.     

Confidence limits of the probability of success in animal experiments and clinical studies: A Bayesian approach

PurposeTo determine from the number of trials, n, and the number of observed successes, k the most probable value, the variance and the confidence limits of the probability of success, p, in animal experiments and clinical studies subject to binomial statistics.MethodIn such experiments the probability of success is an unknown parameter. The Bayesian approach to the problem is advocated, based on constructed distribution of the probability of success.ResultsA simple Matlab code for the calculation of the confidence limits according to the proposed method is provided. The most probable, the mean, the variance and the confidence limits are calculated applying the usual definitions of these characteristics.ConclusionThe proposed method works for any number of trials – large and small and all possible values of the number of successes, including k = 0 and k = n, providing exact formulae for the calculation of the confidence limits in all cases.     

Double-strand break repair and genetic recombination in topoisomerase and primase mutants of bacteriophage T4

The effects of primase and topoisomerase II deficiency on the double-strand break (DSB) repair and genetic recombination in bacteriophage T4 were studied in vivo using focused recombination. Site-specific DSBs were induced by SegC endonuclease in the rIIB gene of one of the parents. The frequency/distance relationship was determined in crosses of the wild-type phage, topoisomerase II mutant amN116 (gene 39), and primase mutant E219 (gene 61). Ordinary two-factor (i × j) and three-factor (i k × j) crosses between point rII mutations were also performed. These data provide information about the frequency and distance distribution of the single-exchange (splice) and double-exchange (patch) events. In two-factor crosses ets1 × i, the topoisomerase and primase mutants had similar recombinant frequencies in crosses at ets1–i distances longer than 1000 bp, comprising about 80% of the corresponding wild-type values. They, however, differ remarkably in crosses at shorter distances. In the primase mutant, the recombinant frequencies are similar to those in the wild-type crosses at distances less than 100 bp, being a bit diminished at longer distances. In two-factor crosses ets1 × i of the topoisomerase mutant, the recombinant frequencies were reduced ten-fold at the shortest distances. In three-factor crosses a6 ets1 × i, where we measure patch-related recombination, the primase mutant was quite proficient across the entire range of distances. The topoisomerase mutant crosses demonstrated virtually complete absence of rII⁺ recombinants at distances up to 33 bp, with the frequencies increasing steadily at longer distances. The data were interpreted as follows. The primase mutant is fully recombination-proficient. An obvious difference from the wild-type state is some shortage of EndoVII function leading to prolonged existence of HJs and thus stretched out ds-branch migration. This is also true for the topoisomerase mutant. However, the latter is deficient in the ss-branch migration step of the DSB repair pathway and partially deficient in HJ initiation. In apparent contradiction to their effects on the DSB-induced site-specific recombination, the topoisomerase and primase mutants demonstrated about 3–8-fold increase in the recombinant frequencies in the ordinary crosses, with the recombination running exclusively via patches. This implies that most of the spontaneous recombination events are not initiated by dsDNA ends in these mutants.     

Riparian vegetation change in upstream and downstream reaches of three temperate rivers dammed for hydroelectric generation in British Columbia,Canada

River flow regulation by dams for hydroelectric generation has been a common practice worldwide for centuries, with diverse ecological impacts. We studied upstream and downstream reaches of three British Columbia Hydro reservoirs on the Allouette, Coquitlam, and Cheakamus Rivers to determine if riparian plant communities were affected by the dams. We determined cover of all plants in consecutive 1 m² quadrats along five to six 14 m-long belt transects in each 300 m upstream and downstream sections of these rivers. We encountered 166 plant species in a total of 448 quadrats. Differences in plant communities (abundance, species richness, diversity) amongst rivers were larger than that between the upstream versus downstream of the rivers. This suggests that any difference caused by reservoir management was within the natural range of variation found across the rivers. We found significant reductions in the occurrences of red alder and western red cedar downstream of reservoirs. The lack of regeneration of these two species may be attributable to the reduction in extremes of flow variation and lack of sediment transport due to the reservoirs. Coordinated flow management can help mitigate these downstream impacts.     

Plant species and communities assessment in interaction with edaphic and topographic factors; an ecological study of the mount Eelum District Swat,Pakistan

The current analyses of vegetation were aimed to study the different effects of environmental variables and plant species and communities interaction to these variables, identified threats to local vegetation and suggestion for remedial measures in the Mount Eelum, Swat, Pakistan. For assessment of environmental variability quantitative ecological techniques were used through quadrats having sizes of 2 × 2, 5 × 5 and 10 × 10 m² for herbs, shrubs and trees respectively. Result of the present study revealed 124 plant species in the study area. Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA) was used to analyze the ecological gradient of vegetation. The environmental data and species abundance were used in CANOCO software version 4.5. The presence absence data of plant species were elaborated with Cluster and Two Way Cluster Analysis techniques using PC-ORD version 5 to show different species composition that resulted in five plant communities. Findings indicate that elevation, aspect and soil texture are the strongest variables that have significant effect on species composition and distribution of various communities shown with P value 0.0500. It is recommended to protect and use sensibly whole of the Flora normally and rare species particularly in the region.     

Plants as indicators of snow layer duration in southern Norwegian mountains

The main aim of this paper was to study the responses of mountain plants in relation to the time of snowmelt. Three mountain areas situated along an oceanic–continental gradient were selected as study sites, and the sample plots ranged from 182 m below to 473 m above the climatic forest limit. In total, 185 quadrats (2 m × 2 m), stratified to include only oligotrophic and mesotrophic mountain vegetation types, were selected to represent a topographic range along altitudinal gradients. In each quadrat, the percentage groundcover of the species was recorded. From the beginning of April until July 2004, snow thickness was monitored, and the Julian day when the snow had completely melted was determined for all plots. The relationship between species abundances and Julian day of snowmelt were analysed by two different numerical methods: (1) relative values for species optimum and tolerance were given by Detrended Canonical Correspondence Analysis (DCCA) with Julian day of snowmelt as the constraining variable. (2) Species responses were modelled by Generalized Linear Models (GLM). For species with significant unimodal responses, optimum and tolerance were calculated. For species with significant linear models, different species response models were identified by the regression intercepts. One hundred and twenty six species (taxa) were tested, and 103 evidenced statistically significant (p < 0.05) distribution responses. Several common alpine plants had a distribution that appeared to be independent of snow. On the basis of the results of the numerical methods, the species were separated into nine Snow Indicator (SI) classes, as a parallel to the Ellenberg indicator values. The species’ SI values were used to calculate weighted average SI values to examine the relationships between previously described plant communities and vegetation transects which experience different snow conditions.     

Taxonomic diversity and community structure of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (Phylum Glomeromycota) in three maritime sand dunes in Santa Catarina state,south Brazil

Community structure and species richness of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (Phylum Glomeromycota) were studied in sand dune sites at Itapiruba (southern), Joaquina (intermediate) and Praia Grande (northern) beaches along the coast of the state of Santa Catarina, Brazil. In each site, a 20 × 20 m plot was established and 20 soil samples collected in a regular grid pattern. Fungal spores were extracted from each sample, counted and identified to species level. A total of 25 species were recovered belonging to seven genera and five families in the Glomeromycota. Gigaspora albida and Acaulospora scrobiculata occurred in >50 % of samples at all three sites. Other common species whose sample frequency was >50 % in one or two sites were Scutellospora weresubiae, Scutellospora cerradensis and Racocetra gregaria, while the remaining majority of species were detected in <25 % of samples within a given site. Dune sites could be differentiated based on the higher frequency of occurrence of S. cerradensis and Acaulospora morrowiae in Itapiruba, S. weresubiae in Joaquina, and Scutellospora hawaiiensis in Praia Grande. No differences across sites were observed for species richness and total spore numbers, the latter averaging from 28.8 to 31.8 spores per 100 ml soil. Shannon diversity was significantly higher in Praia Grande compared to the other two sites. Differences in the relative spore abundance of genera among dunes were detected only for Scutellospora, which was significantly more abundant in the Joaquina beach. Community structure, as depicted by species rank/log abundance graphs, was not significantly different between areas according to the Kolmogorov–Smirnov two-sample test. Species accumulation curves demonstrated that 13 samples were enough to detect 90 % of all species. Overall, sand dune systems share similar arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal communities despite being geographically distant (150 km) from each other.     

Morphological variations,biomass and ion accumulation of the aboveground shoots of Desmostachya bipinnata (L.) Stapf

The present study aimed to evaluate the morphological characteristics and biomass of Desmostachya bipinnata and their relation to the environmental variables in three main habitats (canal banks, railway and roadside shoulders) where it is found in Egypt. In addition, the ability of this plant is evaluated to accumulate nutrients and heavy metals in its aboveground shoots. Twenty five quadrats (1 m × 1 m per quadrat) were selected along five sites representing the different habitats of D. bipinnata for this study. The aboveground shoots displayed considerable morphological variations, differing in the different habitats. The above ground biomass, number of spikes and leaves, rachis length and diameter, leaf length, width and area, leaf sheath length, and spike length and diameter were in the order: road sides > canal banks > railway shoulders. A regression equation: biomass = (67.37 × density) + 108.2, was used to estimate the shoot biomass from the plant growth density. Metal uptake capability from soil to grass is in the order Fe > Zn > Cu > Mn, and all of them are in safe concentration ranges. These heavy metals had a transfer factor more than unity, which indicates that D. bipinnata is a powerful accumulator for heavy metals. In addition, the plant shoots exhibit high accumulation of inorganic and organic nutrients.     

Anuran species richness,complementarity and conservation conflicts in Brazilian Cerrado

Broad-scale correlations between species richness and human population suggest that processes driving species richness, mainly related to high ecological productivity, may also drive human populations. However, it is still under debate if this coincidence implies conflicts between biodiversity conservation and human development. In this paper, we analyzed the relationships among human population size, species richness and irreplaceability in Brazilian Cerrado. We analyzed a dataset with 131 species of anurans distributed in 181 cells with 1° of spatial resolution covering the biome. We found a positive correlation between human population size and anuran species richness (r = 0.46; P = 0.033 with 19.5 geographically effective degrees of freedom, v*), but the irreplaceability of each cell was poorly correlated with human population size (r = 0.075; P = 0.323; v* = 173.9). The 17 cells in the 97 optimal reserve networks contained a total human population ranging from 2942,195 to 4319,845 people, representing on average 11.8% of the human population in the entire Cerrado grid. The comparison of these observed values with 10,000 values from randomly generated networks suggests a relatively high flexibility in optimal complementarity sets for reserve selection. Our results indicated that correlation between richness and human population does not necessarily result in conflicts, given the opportunities for conciliating conservation and development. However, the analyses performed here are initial explorations within the framework of conservation biogeography, so more detailed studies are necessary to establish conservation planning at regional and local scales.     

Biased richness and evenness relationships within Shannon–Wiener index values

The purpose of this analysis was to empirically model and graphically illustrate the numerical relationships between richness (S, 4–35 species) and evenness (E) with respect to Shannon–Wiener index (H′, log_e-based) values. Thirty-two richness-based third-order polynomial regression models (R > 0.99, P < 0.001, n = 28–71) were constructed to characterize these relationships. A composite diagram showed richness varied curvilinearly, with steepness increasing and the spacing between curves decreasing with greater evenness and H′. Maximum H′ values for each richness curve were equal to log_e S (when E = 1), whereas minima were approximated by evenness values of ∼1/S (when H′ = 0). It was concluded from multiple and polynomial regression analyses that: (i) evenness contributed more than richness (E:S ≥3:1) to determining H′, based on standardized partial beta-coefficients; (ii) the differential in E:S ratios increased with greater richness; (iii) the patterns of H′ sample variation between maximum unevenness and perfect evenness was convexo-concave shaped; and (iv) richness as an explanatory variable of H′ was likely an artifact of evenness (0–1 scale) being rescaled according to individual H′ maxima. H′ was redefined as a logarithm-weighted measure of evenness at a given level of richness, which means H′ is either an imperfect index of diversity or a biased measure of evenness. It was also found that the fundamental components of the Shannon–Wiener index measure dominance concentration rather than evenness, with the reversal in emphasis due to multiplication of the H′ equation by −1. H′-derived effective species numbers (exp H′, D) increasingly deviated from those of the diversity model D = S × E in response to increasing richness (up to 69% for 35 species), particularly when evenness was between 0.15 and 0.40. Of two cross-validated H′ prediction methods (P < 0.001, n = 325), the collective use of individual richness-based polynomial regression equations (r = 0.954) was better than a single multiple regression model that incorporated a broad spectrum of richness levels (r = 0.882). A simple graphic model was constructed to illustrate patterns of evenness variation as a function of changing richness and H′ values. Based on the identified biases, particularly E:S ratios, it was recommended that use of H′ be discontinued as a basis for assessing diversity in ecological research or, at the very least, accompanied by independent analyzes of richness and evenness.     

Support vector machines to model presence/absence of Alburnus alburnus alborella (Teleostea,Cyprinidae) in North-Western Italy: Comparison with other machine learning techniques

Alburnus alburnus alborella is a fish species native to northern Italy. It has suffered a very sharp decrease in population over the last 20 years due to human impact. Therefore, it was selected for reintroduction projects. In this research project, support vector machines (SVM) were tested as possible tools for building reliable models of presence/absence of the species. A system of 198 sites located along the rivers of Piedmont in North-Western Italy was investigated. At each site, 19 physical-chemical and environmental variables were measured. We verified that performances did not improve after feature selection but, instead, they slightly decreased (from Correctly Classified Instances [CCI] = 84.34 and Cohen's k [k] = 0.69 to CCI = 82.81 and k = 0.66). However, feature selection is crucial in identifying the relevant features for the presence/absence of the species. We then compared SVMs performances with decision trees (DTs) and artificial neural networks (ANNs) built using the same dataset. SVMs outperformed DTs (CCI = 81.39 and k = 0.63) but not ANNs (CCI = 83.03 and k = 0.66), showing that SVMs and ANNs are the best performing models, proving that their application in freshwater management is more promising than traditional and other machine-learning techniques.     

Response of plant and gastropod species to knotweed invasion

Invasive species of the knotweed complex (Fallopia sp.) have repeatedly been shown to decrease diversity of native local biota. While effects on plant species richness are well established, effects on invertebrate and in particular gastropod species richness are less well understood. We recorded cover of plant species and diversity and abundance of gastropod species in four plots (1 m × 1 m) with Fallopia japonica and compared these to paired control plots without F. japonica at 15 sites along the river Birs (Switzerland) in early summer (June) and autumn (September). Knotweed and control plots did not differ in site characteristics and soil parameters.Average plant species richness in F. japonica plots was 50% lower compared to control plots. This reduction was significant for woody species as well as for herbaceous species. However, species richness of early flowering annuals did not differ significantly. Among the species most affected by knotweed were hop (Humulus lupulus) and European spindle tree (Euonymus europaeus) but also stand-forming species such as nettle (Urtica dioica) or ground elder (Aegopodium podagraria).Average snail species richness was significantly reduced in F. japonica plots. The reduction was pronounced in large (≥5 mm shell size) and long-lived (>2 years) snail species but not in slugs or small and short-lived snails. For example, large snails such as the Roman snail (Helix pomatia, ?85%) or the red-listed species Bradybaena fruticum (?93%), showed reduced abundances in F. japonica compared to control plots. In contrast, the red-listed but small Vertigo pusilla (+92%) had higher abundances in F. japoinca plots. Principal component analyses revealed little overlap in plant communities or community composition of large snail species between F. japonica and control plots. Taken together, knotweed invasion decreased the cover of most plant species and abundance of large and long-lived gastropods.     

Synthesis,molecular modeling and SAR study of novel pyrazolo[5,1-f][1,6]naphthyridines as CB2 receptor antagonists/inverse agonists

Pyrazolo[5,1-f][1,6]naphthyridine-carboxamide derivatives were synthesized and evaluated for the affinity at CB₁ and CB₂ receptors. Based on the AgOTf and proline-cocatalyzed multicomponent methodology, the ethyl 5-(p-tolyl)pyrazolo[5,1-f][1,6]naphthyridine-2-carboxylate (12) and ethyl 5-(2,4-dichlorophenyl)pyrazolo[5,1-f][1,6]naphthyridine-2-carboxylate (13) intermediates were synthesized from the appropriate o-alkynylaldehydes, p-toluenesulfonyl hydrazide and ethyl pyruvate. Most of the novel compounds feature a p-tolyl (8a–i) or a 2,4-dichlorophenyl (8j) motif at the C₅-position of the tricyclic pyrazolo[5,1-f][1,6]naphthyridine scaffold. Structural variation on the carboxamide moiety at the C₂-position includes basic monocyclic, terpenoid and adamantine-based amines. Among these derivatives, compound 8h (N-adamant-1-yl-5-(p-tolyl)pyrazolo[5,1-f][1,6]naphthyridine-2-carboxamide) exhibited the highest CB₂ receptor affinity (K_i = 33 nM) and a high degree of selectivity (K_iCB₁/K_iCB₂ = 173:1), whereas a similar trend in the near nM range was seen for the bornyl analogue (compound 8f, K_i = 53 nM) and the myrtanyl derivative 8j (K_i = 67 nM). Effects of 8h, 8f and 8j on forskolin-stimulated cAMP levels were determined, showing antagonist/inverse agonist properties for such compounds. Docking studies conducted for these derivatives and the reference antagonist/inverse agonist compound 4 (SR144528) disclosed the specific pattern of interactions probably related to the pyrazolo[5,1-f][1,6]naphthyridine scaffold as CB₂ inverse agonists.